CH 2 & 5 Flashcards

Biology, Behavior, and Learning

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1
Q

What is an Electroencephalogram (EEG)?

A

a record of brainwave activity made from placing electrodes on various places of the scalp that detects electrical activity of the brain.

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2
Q

What is a Micro-electrode?

A

Small wire inserted near or into single neuron to monitor its activity or stimulate it.

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3
Q

Why are imaging techniques important?

A

Aside from diagnosing abnormalities, tumors, injuries, and diseases, brain imaging is important to understand how all parts of the brain connect.

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4
Q

What is a CT scan?

A

Scan that uses large donut structure and x-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain to show tumors and other abnormalities.

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5
Q

What are MRIs?

A

Magnetic resonance imaging, gives clearer more detailed images than CT scans without the use of potentially harmful x-rays.

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6
Q

What are PET scans?

A

Positron-emission tomography, shows patterns of blood flow, oxygen use, and glucose metabolism in the brain. Useful to see action of drugs in the brain and other organs.

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7
Q

What are Functional MRIs (fMRI)?

A

Uses magnetic impulses making it quicker and more accurate than PET scans and doesn’t require injections.

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8
Q

What is the Neuron?

A

Specialized cells that conduct impulses through nervous system.

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9
Q

What are Neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals that facilitate or inhibit transmission of impulses from one neuron to the next. Released into synaptic cleft from axon terminal of sending neuron.
Ex. Dopamine, Epinephrine, Serotonin, Glutamate, Endorphins

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10
Q

What is the structure of a neuron?

A

-Cell body(Nucleus, respb. for metabolic f. of neuron)
-Dendrites(receive messages from cell bodies & other neurons)
-Axon(transmits messages to other neurons and parts of body)
-Glial cells(support neurons’ vital functions, remove waste from brain)

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11
Q

What is a Afferent Neuron?

A

Sensory- Relays messages from the sense organs and receptors to brain or spinal cord.

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12
Q

What is a Efferent Neuron?

A

Motor- signals from central NS to glands.

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13
Q

What are Interneurons?

A

Carry information between neurons.

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14
Q

What are Synaptic Clefts?

A

Tiny, fluid-filled gaps that separate the axon terminal from the dendrites.

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15
Q

What is a Synapse?

A

Connection point where the axon terminal of a sending(presynaptic) neuron communicates with a recieving(postsynaptic)neuron. (Are not physically connected)

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16
Q

What is Resting Potential?

A

When at rest, axon membrane has negative charge of -70millivolts. Once impulse reaches a neuron, ion channels open in membrane of axon to allow positive ions to flow in.

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17
Q

What is Action Potential?

A

Sudden reversal(from a negative to positive value) of resting potential on cell membrane that initiates firing of a neuron.

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18
Q

What are Synaptic vesicles?

A

Small, sphere-shaped containers with thin membranes inside axon terminals that hold neurotransmitters.

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19
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

A

Includes all nerves that are not encased in bone, outside of the skull and backbone.
Splits into Somatic and Autonomic nervous systems, Autonomic splits into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems.

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20
Q

What is the Central Nervous System(CNS)?

A

Includes all neural tissues inside skull and backbone.

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21
Q

What is the Somatic Nervous system?

A

Controls skeletal muscles; interacts w external environment.

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22
Q

What is the Autonomic Nervous system?

A

Regulates body’s internal environment, including organs, glands, and blood vessels. Not consciously controlled.

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23
Q

What is the Sympathetic Nervous System?

A

Prepares body for action; mobilizes energy resources. Fight or flight.

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24
Q

What is the Parasympathetic Nervous System?

A

Conserves body’s energy; returns body to normal quiet state after emergency.

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25
Q

What 3 sections is the brain divided into?

A

Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain.

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26
Q

The hindbrain consists of what 5 components?

A

-Brain stem
-Medulla
-Pons
-Reticular formation(RAS- reticular activating system)
-Cerebellum

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27
Q

The midbrain consist of?

A

-Substantia nigra

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28
Q

The forebrain consists of what 5 areas?

A

-Thalamus
-Hypothalamus
-Limbic system (Amygdala and Hippocampus)
-Cerebral cortex
-Corpus Callosum

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29
Q

What is the Hypothalamus?

A

Part of forebrain; helps control hunger,thirst, body temp and endocrine system; involved in emotion.

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30
Q

What is the Cerebrum?

A

Part of forebrain; thinking part of the brain

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31
Q

What is the Cerebral Cortex?

A

Upper part of brain; convoluted gray matter covering cerebral hemispheres responsible for higher mental processes.

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32
Q

What is the Corpus Callosum?

A

Part of Forebrain; Band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

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33
Q

What is the Limbic system?

A

Part of forebrain; Group of structures involved in emotional expression, memory, and motivation.

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34
Q

What is the Thalamus?

A

Part of forebrain; Relay station between cerebral cortex and lower brain centers.

35
Q

What is the Substantia Nigra?

A

Part of midbrain; Controls unconscious motor actions.

36
Q

What is the Pons?

A

Part of hindbrain; relays motor messages between cerebellum and motor cortex; exerts influence on sleep and dreaming.

37
Q

What is the Medulla?

A

Part of hindbrain; Control center of heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, swallowing, and coughing.

38
Q

What is the Spinal Cord?

A

Part of hindbrain; Extension of the brain; controls simple reflexes; connects brain to peripheral nervous system.

39
Q

What is the Reticular formation?

A

Part of hindbrain; Arousal system; activates cerebral cortex.

40
Q

What is the Cerebellum?

A

part of hindbrain; Coordinates skilled movement; regulates muscle tone and posture; plays a role in motor learning and probably cognition.

41
Q

The most outer layer of brain hemispheres, known as Cerebral Cortex, is composed of what 3 areas?

A

The Sensory input, Motor, and Association areas.
2 functional divisions:
a) Left/right side of cortex
b) lobes; Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

42
Q

Define Left Hemisphere.

A

Controls right side of body.
Coordinates complex movements, handles most language functions, mathematic, logical, and analytical thought.

43
Q

Define Right Hemisphere.

A

Controls left side of body.
Focuses on visual-spacial perception, interpretation of nonverbal behavior, and recognition and expression of emotion.

44
Q

Define the Split Brain condition.

A

When corpus callosum is absent or surgically modified. Shown to reduce seizures in patients with epilepsy*
Only to be a last option

45
Q

What are the 4 Cerebral Cortex’s lobes?

A

Frontal lobes
Parietal lobes
Occipital lobes
Temporal lobes

46
Q

Define the Frontal lobe.

A

Largest lobe; in front; motor cortex and broca’s area

47
Q

What is Broca’s area?

La boca

A

Part of frontal lobe; Controls production of speech sounds.

48
Q

What is the motor cortex?

A

Part of frontal lobe; Controls movements

49
Q

What is the Somatosensory Cortex?

A

Part of Parietal lobe; Interprets touch, pressure, temperature, pain.

50
Q

What is the Parietal lobe?

Upper back part of cerebral cortex

A

Receives information relevant to body awareness, spatial orientation; includes somatosensory cortex.

51
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

Part of temporal lobe

A

Interprets language; controls comprehensibility of speech.

52
Q

What is the Temporal lobe?

Middle bottom of brain

A

Receives auditory information from the ears; primary auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area.

53
Q

What is the Primary auditory cortex?

A

part of temporal lobe; interprets sounds.

54
Q

What is the Occipital lobe?

A

Receives visual information from the eyes; includes primary visual cortex.

55
Q

What is the Primary visual cortex?

A

Part of occipital lobe; Interprets visual input.

56
Q

What is plasticity of the brain?

A

It’s the brain’s capacity to adopt to changes such as brain damage, maintained throughout life.
Allows synapses to strengthen and re-organize interconnections when stimulated by experience and practice.
Greatest in young children.

57
Q

What is the Endocrine system?

A

A series of ductless glands, located in various parts of body that manufacture and secrete hormones. Hormones released into bloodstream and affect changes in certain parts of body.
-Pituitary gland
-Pineal gland
-Thyroid gland
-Thymus gland
-Pancreas
-Adrenal glands
-Gonads(Testes or Ovaries)

58
Q

What is Classical conditioning?

A

Organisms learn to associate one stimulus with another.

59
Q

What is a Stimulus/Stimuli?

A

Any change in environment to which organism responds.

60
Q

What was Pavlov’s Studies of Classical Conditioning?

A

His experiments established the basis of classical conditioning. Dogs were played a tone before food was given and paired the stimuli resulting in salivation by the tone itself–the salivation had become a conditioned response.

61
Q

What is an Unconditioned Response?

A

An unconditioned stimulus elicits reflexive response.
ex. dogs salivating response to food.

62
Q

What is a Conditioned Response?

A

A conditioned stimulus elicits learned response.
ex. dogs conditioned to salivate to paired stimulus of tones played while given food.

63
Q

What is Higher-Order Conditioning?

A

A chain of cues that become conditioned stimuli.
ex. getting a shot at doctor’s office.

64
Q

What is Extinction in classical conditioning?

A

Ex. Pavlov played tone for dogs but removed food. Eventually, conditioned response went away.

65
Q

What is Spontaneous Recovery in classical conditioning?

A

Weakened form of conditioned response, typically after time interval.

66
Q

What is Generalization in classical conditioning?

A

Similar stimuli produces the same responses.
ex. little Albert and anything cute and cuddly, elicited a conditioned fear response.

67
Q

What is Discrimination in classical conditioning?

A

Learning to distinguish between similar stimuli.
Ex. Similar tones played for the dogs.

68
Q

Explain Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment.

A

Theory of behaviorism; Infant was shown rat while Watson made a loud, frightening noise. Soon, child came to fear the rat.
Showed fear can be conditioned; also conditioned fear generalized to other animals and objects.

69
Q

What is Operant Conditioning?

A

Consequences increase or decrease frequency of a behavior.

70
Q

What is the Law of Effect?

A

Consequences strengthen or weaken likelihood of same response in the future.
ex. Thorndike’s puzzle box.

71
Q

What are Reinforcers?

A

A consequence that reinforces a voluntary behavior(operant).
Positive Reinforcers: add stimulus.
Negative Reinforcers: remove an undesired stimulus.

72
Q

What is Shaping in Operant Conditioning?

A

Learning in small steps as opposed to all at once.

73
Q

What is discrimination in operant conditioning?

A

Learning to distinguish between reinforced stimulus and similar stimulus.

74
Q

Generalization and Spontaneous Recovery in operant conditioning

A

Just like classical conditioning; Similar stimuli produce same response; and a weakened form of conditioned response.

75
Q

What is Punishment in Operant conditioning?

A

Opposite of reinforcement; Leads to decrease in behavior because of a consequence.
Pos. punishment: Adds consequence to reduce frequency of behavior.
Neg. Punishment: Removes desired stimulus to decrease frequency of behavior.
Can promote aggression and hostility; believed better to avoid rewarding undesirable behavior rather than punish.

76
Q

What is Observational learning in Cognitive learning?

A

Learning by watching behaviors and consequences of others.
Called “social-cognitive learning”
Different types of learning from models called “effects”

77
Q

Explain Modeling Effect of Observational learning.

A

Learn by demonstration.

78
Q

Explain Facilitation Effect of observational learning.

A

Improve by imitation.

79
Q

Explain Inhibitory Effect of observational learning.

A

Avoid behavior seen to receive undesirable consequence.
ex. slow down when seeing another driver getting a ticket.

80
Q

Explain Disinhibitory Effect of observational learning.

A

Mimic undesirable behavior of others due to lack of consequences or added reinforcement of said behavior.
ex. slacking off at work due to no reprimanding.

81
Q

How does learning from media impact learning?

A

Bandura’s Experiment: Children who watched aggressive behavior were more likely to be aggressive themselves.
the aggressive learned behaviors last for years. L. Rowell Huesmann found that watching aggression is correlated with a likelihood to engage in violence as young adults.

82
Q

What is a primary reinforcer?

A

Consequences that satisfies basic needs.
ex. food, water, shelter.

83
Q

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A

Consequences that have some association to the primary reinforcer.
Ex. tokens earned to purchase said basic needs