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Anatomy 1 exam > Ch. 18 > Flashcards

Ch. 18 Flashcards

1
Q

What 2 systems coordinate the functions of all body systems?

A

nervous and endocrine

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2
Q

How does the nervous system control activities?

A

Through nerve impulses that cause muscles to contract or glands to secrete

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3
Q

How does the endocrine system control activities?

A

By releasing chemical messenger molecules called hormones

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4
Q

What is the neuroendocrine system and how do they work?

A

It is the nervous and endocrine system that work as a coordinated, interconnecting, tremendous system.

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5
Q

What stimulates the release of hormones?

A

The central nervous system?

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6
Q

What may hormones do to nerve impulses?

A

Promote or inhibit the generation of them

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7
Q

2 types of glands in the body

A

exocrine and endocrine

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8
Q

exocrine glands secrete

A

their products (enzymes) into ducts

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9
Q

endocrine glands secrete

A

hormones into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells, which then diffuse into capillaries; ductless

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10
Q

what are the endocrine system’s glands?

A

Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal

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11
Q

how are hormones
circulated through the body?

A

via the circulatory system, they regulate
and modify cell activity and metabolism

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12
Q

what do hormones only
affect?

A

specific target tissues.

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13
Q

what do target cells have?

A

specific receptors to which hormones bind

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14
Q

receptor molecules are
constantly being_________

A

synthesized and broken down

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15
Q

down regulation

A

may occur under conditions of high
hormone concentration and decreased
surface receptor molecules.

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16
Q

up regulation

A

may occur during conditions of low
hormone concentration and high surface
receptor molecules.

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17
Q

circulating hormones aka
endocrine are hormones that

A

travel in blood and act on
distant target cells

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18
Q

local hormones are hormones that

A

act locally without first
entering the blood stream.

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19
Q

2 types of local hormones

A

paracrine, autocrine

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20
Q

paracrin

A

local hormones that act on neighboring
cells

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21
Q

autocrin are

A

local hormones that act on the same cell
that secreted them

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22
Q

lipid soluble hormones include

A

steroids and thyroid hormones

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23
Q

water soluble hormones include

A

amines, peptides, and proteins

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24
Q

amines are

A

modified amino acids. have an NH3 group.
formed by removal of CO2

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25
Q

steroids are made from

A

cholesterol

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26
Q

peptides and proteins are formed from

A

polypeptides

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27
Q

where do most water-
soluble hormones circulate?

A

in the plasma, in a free, unattached form

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28
Q

to what do most lipid soluble
hormones bind? what does
it cause?

A

bind to transport proteins, which improves
transportability in the blood. causes an
impediment of passage through the kidney

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29
Q

typical mechanism of an amine is to use cyclic AMP
as the 2nd messenger; what is the process?

A

alters the DNA, resulting in the formation of
new proteins. causes a response typical of
that hormone.
steps:
1. hormone binds to receptor, forming a
receptor hormone complex
2. an enzyme in the cell (adenylate cyclase)
is activated by G-protein. G proteins are
activated by the receptors that have bound
to the hormones
3. adenylate cyclase converts ATP into
cyclic AMP (second messenger)
4. cyclic AMP activates protein kinases
(which modify metabolism of cell)
5. phosphorylation (kinase enzymes
transfer a phosphate ion from side chain of
1 protein to another)
6. enzyme phosphodiesterase is an
enzyme that quickly destroys cyclic AMP
(effects of cyclic AMP are brief/alter activity
in target cells

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30
Q

why do we need water
soluble hormone binding?

A

without it, protein and peptide molecules
can’t break through the cell membrane

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31
Q

what do water soluble
hormones activate/ what
does that initiate?

A

activates plasma membrane receptors,
initiating a series of biochemical events
within the target cell

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32
Q

what is the first messenger?

A

water-soluble hormone

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33
Q

what is the second
messenger?

A

produced inside the cell because of the first
messenger (hormone)

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34
Q

what does regulation of
hormone secretion do?

A

normally maintains homeostasis and
prevents overproduction or underproduction
of a particular hormone

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35
Q

what is hormone secretion
controlled by

A

signals from the nervous system, chemical
changes in the blood, and other hormones

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36
Q

more hormones secreted,
_____ effect on target
hormone

A

greater

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37
Q

what 2 things does the
secretion of hormones
affect?

A
  1. modifies target organ
  2. endocrine gland that secreted it; inhibits
    further hormone production (feedback
    inhibition)
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38
Q

hypothalamus is

A

the major integrating link between the
nervous and endocrine systems

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39
Q

what 2 glands regulated
virtually all aspects of
growth development,
metabolism, and
homeostasis?

A

hypothalamus and pituitary gland
(hypophysis)

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40
Q

anatomy of pituitary gland

A

rests in the sphenoid bone on the
hypophyseal fossa and is divided into two
lobes; attaches to the brain by the
infundibulum (aka hypophyseal stalk)

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41
Q

what is the anterior pituitary
gland aka adenohypophysis
supplied by?

A

the hypophyseal portal (branches of
internal carotid) because it does not have a
direct blood supply

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42
Q

what are the hormones of
the anterior pituitary gland
controlled by?

A

releasing or inhibiting hormones produced
by the hypothalamus

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43
Q

hormones of the anterior
pituitary gland

A

many are tropic hormones; has a target
organ other than endocrine gland:
human growth hormone (HGH) or
somatotrophin (STH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

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44
Q

HGH or somatotrophin is secreted by

A

somatotrophs

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45
Q

Thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH) is secreted by

A

thyrotrophs

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46
Q

Follicle Stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) are secreted by

A

gonadotrophs

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47
Q

Prolactin (PRL) secreted by

A

lactotrophs

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48
Q

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) are secreted by

A

corticotrophs.

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49
Q

hypothalamic regulating hormones and feedback inhibition mechanisms regulates

A

the secretion (release) of anterior
pituitary gland hormones

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50
Q

what is the secretion of HGH
dependent upon?

A

hypothalamic releasing factors (GHRF,
GHIRF)

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51
Q

HGH

A

stimulates general body growth and
regulates various aspects of metabolism
involving muscle, bone, adipose tissue
(lipolysis - breaks down fat), and acts
synergistically with insulin.

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52
Q

“synergistically”

A

combined effects of 2 agents are greater
than 1

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53
Q

hypersecretion

A

too much

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54
Q

hyposecretion

A

too little

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55
Q

HGH hypersecretion

A

childhood: giantism
adulthood: acromegaly

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56
Q

acromegaly

A

bones no longer grown in length - they
thicken (esp. brow line, mandible) massive
hands and feet. die young (heart/kidney
failure)

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57
Q

HGH hyposecretion

A

pituitary dwarfism and hypoglycemia; slow
growth rate; premature closure of epiphysis

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58
Q

Thyroid stimulating hormone

A

regulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid
gland hormones

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59
Q

what is secretion of thyroid
stimulating hormone
controlled by?

A

TRH aka thyroid releasing hormone
(thyrotrophin)

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60
Q

what happens to Thyroid releasing hormone factor at
high hormone levels? low?

A

high - TRF inhibited
low - TRF stimulated

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61
Q

TSH hypersecretion

A

hyperthyroidism

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62
Q

TSH hyposecretion

A

hyperthyroidism; thyroid gland atrophies

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63
Q

secretion of follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH)
is controlled by?

A

GnRF aka gonadotropin releasing factor

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64
Q

what does FSH stimulate in
FSH

A

follicle (egg cell) production

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65
Q

what does FSH stimulate in
men?

A

sperm cell production

66
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
secretion is controlled by?

A

GnRF aka gonadotropin releasing factors

67
Q

what does LH stimulate in
women?

A

2 sex hormones - progesterone and
estrogen

68
Q

what does LH stimulate in
men?

A

secretion of testosterone in seminiferous
tubes

69
Q

Leydig cells

A

cells that produce testosterone

70
Q

Prolactin (PRL) secretion is
regulated by

A

PIF aka prolactin inhibiting factor

71
Q

what does PRL stimulate?

A

when used with estrogen and
progesterone, PRL initiates and maintains
milk secretion

72
Q

what does prolactin do in
males?

A

increase the effects of LH

73
Q

secretion of adrenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH) is regulated by

A

CRF aka corticotroph
releasing factor

74
Q

what does ACTH control?

A

the production and secretion of hormones
of the cortex and adrenal glands, namely
glucocorticoids.

75
Q

ACTH hypersecretion examples

A

Cushing’s Disease; moon face,
expressionless, Dowager’s hump

76
Q

ACTH hyposecretion examples

A

Addison’s disease; bronze skin

77
Q

Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH) secretion is regulated by

A

ACTH

78
Q

what does MSH do?

A

increase melanin production in the skin;
increase the number of melanocytes. if you
inject MSH, causes intense darkening of
skin

79
Q

cells of the posterior pituitary
gland

A

pituicytes.

80
Q

do pituicytes synthesize
hormones?

A

no

81
Q

hypothalamohypophyseal
tract

A

a neural connection between the
hypothalamus and the neurohypophysis

82
Q

what does the neural
connection
(hypothalamohypophyseal
tract) resemble?

A

support cells of the nervous system;
support axon terminals in gland

83
Q

2 hormones made by hypothalamic nuclei and stored in the posterior pituitary gland

A

oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone

84
Q

“Hypothalamic nuclei”

A

paraventricular and supra optic; collections
of cell bodies; axons of these cell bodies
terminate in posterior pituitary

85
Q

oxytocin

A

stimulates contraction of the uterus and
milk ejection from the mammary glands

86
Q

hyposecretion of oxytocin effects

A

difficult labor; inability to nurse

87
Q

antidiuretic hormone regulates

A

body water balance through its action on the kidneys

88
Q

secretion of antidiuretic
hormone regulated by

A

osmoreceptors

89
Q

osmoreceptors

A

sense organs that detect solute
concentration in body fluids

90
Q

what does ADH cause?
where does it come from?

A

decreased water excretion; comes from
supraoptic

91
Q

hypersecretion of
antidiuretic hormone

A

high blood pressure (vasoconstricts blood
vessels)

92
Q

hyposecretion of antidiuretic
hormone

A

diabetes insipidus - excretion of very dilute
urine (15-20 L/day)

93
Q

anatomy of larynx

A

located just below the larynx and has right and left lobes connected by the thyroid isthmus

94
Q

what does the thyroid
consist of?

A

thyroid follicles composed of follicular cells, which secrete 2 hormones (thyroxin [t4, tetraiodothyronine] which is most abundant, and t3 aka triiodothyronine (most active)

95
Q

follicular cells

A

simple cuboidal

96
Q

which hormone from the
follicular cells is most
abundant? most active?

A

abundant - t4
active - t3

97
Q

how are thyroid hormones
synthesized?

A

from iodine and the amino acid tyrosine
within a glycoprotein called thyroglobulin
and then t3 and t4 are transported in the
blood by TBG (thyroxin binding globulin -
plasma protein).

98
Q

what does thyroglobulin
represent?

A

inactive t3, t4

99
Q

what can thyroid hormones
regulate?

A

oxygen use and basal metabolic rate,
cellular metabolism, and growth and
development

100
Q

hyposecretion of Thyroid
hormone

A

in a fetus - can delay development in CNS,
in children - mental retardation

101
Q

what is thyroid hormone
secreted by?

A

feedback inhibition involving the
hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and TSH

102
Q

what role does TSH play in
secretion of thyroid hormone

A

maintaining thyroid follicles which produce
t3 and t4; stimulates follicles to take up
iodine from blood and incorporate it into t3s
and t4s. it also increases the size of the
follicles

103
Q

hypersecretion of thyroid
hormone

A

hyperthyroidism (grave’s disease) -
tachycardia (100-160), heart failure,
nervous excitability, elevated body temp,
flushed moist skin, decrease tolerance to
heat, increase tolerance to cold,
hyperglycemia - can lead to thyroid storm

104
Q

what happens to TSH with
low levels of t3 and t4?

A

increases. and vice versa.

105
Q

hyposecretion of thyroid
gland

A

hypothyroidism
infants and children: cretinism
adults: myxedema (Gulls’ disease)

106
Q

cretinism

A

slow mental/physical growth, dwarfism,
bradycardia, mental retardation, low body
temp, thick dry skin

107
Q

myxedema

A

slow mental/physical growth, dwarfism,
bradycardia, mental retardation, low body
temp, thick dry skin and infertility, loss of
body hair

108
Q

4 reasons for
hypothyroidism

A
  1. failure of the hypothalamus to release
    TRF (thyroid releasing factors).
  2. failure of pituitary gland to release TSH
  3. failure of thyroid gland
  4. deficiency in iodine
109
Q

thyrocalcitonin

A

produced by cells lying outside the thyroid
gland called C cells aka parafollicular cells

110
Q

do you get a goiter with
hypo or hyper?

A

both

111
Q

what turns on
thyrocalcitonin?

A

high blood calcium levels

112
Q

what is thyrocalcitonin
secretion regulated by?

A

calcium levels in the blood

113
Q

what does thyrocalcitonin
do?

A

promote uptake of calcium by bone tissue
thus causing a decrease in blood calcium
levels

114
Q

where are the parathyroid
glands?

A

embedded on the posterior surface of the
thyroid

115
Q

what cells are in the
parathyroid gland?

A

principal cells aka parathormone aka chief
cells, which produce parathyroid hormone

116
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

regulated calcium homeostasis by
increasing blood calcium levels through its
effect on the kidneys, bone, and GI tract -
opposite of thyrocalcitonin

117
Q

when is parathyroid
hormone activated?

A

when blood calcium levels drop. calcium is
taken out of bone and put to blood
(increased osteoclast activity)

118
Q

what is secretion of
parathyroid hormone
regulated by?

A

feedback inhibition based on blood calcium
levels

119
Q

hypersecretion of
parathyroid hormone

A

hyperparathyroidism: increase calcium
levels causes decreased excitability of
muscle and nerve tissue. muscle
weakness, lethargy, fragile bones, kidney
stones

120
Q

hyposecretion of parathyroid
hormone

A

hypoparathyroidism: decreased calcium
levels, increase excitability to muscle and
nerve tissue, muscle strength, no lethargy,
strong bones, cramps, spasms, convulsions

121
Q

where are the adrenal
glands?

A

superior to the kidneys and have 2 layers -
internal and external

122
Q

external tissue of adrenal
glands

A

adrenal cortex: divided into three zones that
secrete different hormones chemically
related to cholesterol and androgens (sex
hormones); zona glomerulosa, zona
fasciculata, zona reticularis

123
Q

zona glomerulosa

A

outer zone. secretes mineralocorticoids.
closest to capsule

124
Q

zone fasciculata

A

middle zone. secrete glucocorticoids

125
Q

zona reticularis

A

inner zone. secretes androgens

126
Q

mineralocorticoids

A

decrease sodium and water excretion
(increase retention) and increase
potassium excretion (decrease retention)
into the urine.

127
Q

what is secretion of
mineralocorticoids regulated
by?

A

the renin angiotensin pathway

128
Q

target organ for adrenal
glands

A

kidney

129
Q

renin-angiotensin pathway

A

angiotensinogen –>renin–.angiotensin I–
>angiotensin CE–>angiotensin II

130
Q

angiotensin CE

A

converting enzyme secreted by type 1
alveolar cells

131
Q

renin

A

secreted by kidney. converts
angiotensinogen into angiotensin I

132
Q

hypersecretion of
mineralocorticoids

A

edema (increased ECF water)
increased: blood volume, cardiac output,
blood pressure. congestive heart failure

133
Q

hyposecretion of
mineralocorticoids

A

hypovolemia, shock, death; decreased in
blood volume, cardiac output, blood
pressure. shock (cause of death), sodium
and ECF water lost

134
Q

glucocorticoids; 4 actions on
the body

A
  1. gluconeogenesis and inhibition of protein
    synthesis
  2. release of stored fat from adipose tissue
  3. suppress immune system to reduce
    lymphocyte and antibody products
  4. anti-inflammatory affect causes heat,
    redness swelling pain
135
Q

what is secretion of
glucocorticoids regulated by

A

feedback inhibition involving ACTH,
cortisol, and CRH aka corticotropic
releasing hormone

136
Q

effect of glucocorticoid
hypersecretion

A

Cushing’s disease; suppressed immune
system, loss of body protein/muscle, tumor
of adrenal pituitary, atrophy, thin skin,
hyperglycemia

137
Q

effect of glucocorticoid
hyposecretion

A

Addison’s disease; bronze skin, muscle
weakness, GI disturbances, low BP, renal
failure

138
Q

adrenogenital syndrome

A

involves the adrenal cortex, gonads, and
pituitary hypothalamus - the primary defect
is the inability of the adrenal cortex to
produce cortisol (inhibiting ACTH
secretion); ACTH levels increase,
gonadotropin production decreases and
egg and sperm cells are not produced ..
result -sterility

139
Q

what effect do high levels of
cortical androgens have on
women?

A

masculinizing

140
Q

adrenal medulla

A

consists of hormone producing cells called
chromaffin cells which surround large
blood, filled sinuses

141
Q

what are medullary
secretions of adrenal
medulla? what response is it
similar to?

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine;
sympathetic

142
Q

hypersecretion of adrenal
medulla

A

pheochromocytoma (marked hypertension)

143
Q

pancreas

A

a flattened organ located posterior and
slightly inferior to the stomach

144
Q

what is the pancreas
classified as?

A

endocrine and exocrine gland; it secretes
both hormones into the blood and digestive
enzymes into the duct systems.

145
Q

histology of endocrine
portion of pancreas

A

consists of pancreatic islets or islets of
Langerhans

146
Q

4 types of cells in the islets
of Langerhans

A

alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells, f cells

147
Q

alpha cells

A

produce the hormone glucagon

148
Q

beta cells

A

produce the hormone insulin

149
Q

delta cells

A

produce somatostatin; inhibits growth
hormone insulin release

150
Q

f cells

A

produce pancreatic polypeptide

151
Q

what does the exocrine
portion consist of
(pancreas)?

A

clusters of digestive enzyme-producing
cells called pancreatic acini that empty into
the duodenum of the small intestine
through the duct of Wirsung

152
Q

what is the secretion of
insulin regulated by?

A

feedback inhibition

153
Q

what does insulin regulate?

A

carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism
mainly in muscle, adipose, and liver tissues

154
Q

hypersecretion of insulin

A

hypoglycemia (glucose levels in the blood
fall below 100 mgs/100 mls)

155
Q

effect of hyposecretion of
insulin

A

juvenile type I and adult-onset type II
diabetes mellitus

156
Q

juvenile type I diabetes

A

before age 30. rapid onset. no insulin
production. auto immune. t-lymphocytes
attack beta cells. genetic defect on
chromosome 11. need insulin

157
Q

adult-onset type II diabetes

A

middle age, FFF (fat female forty), make
insulin but a decreased sensitization of
insulin receptors. use diet and exercise
may need some insulin help

158
Q

ovaries

A

located in the pelvic cavity and produce sex
hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
related to development and maintenance of
female sexual characteristics, reproductive
cycle, pregnancy, lactation, and normal
reproductive functions. they also produce
inhibin and relaxin

159
Q

testes

A

lie inside the scrotum and produce sex
hormones (testosterone primarily) related to
the development and maintenance of male
sexual characteristics and normal
reproductive functions. they also produce
inhibin.

160
Q

the thymus gland secretes
several hormones related to
____

A

immunity

161
Q

what promotes the
proliferation and maturation
of t lymphocytes (a WBC
involved in immunity)?

A

thymosin, thymic humoral factor, thymic
factor, and thymopoietin.

Anatomy 1 exam (1 decks)

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