ch 16 and 17

Question 1

how can we learn from studying primates

Answer 1

when human studies are limited ethically or practically

Question 2

how do primates learn

Answer 2

classical conditioning
operant conditioning
observational learning

Question 3

famous case of Imo

Answer 3

took sweet potatoes to the water to remove sand. Took handfuls of wheat to the water to remove sand. Over time others started to do the same thing. Learned by observing Imo, and possibly through operant conditioning from human caretakers

Question 4

is observational learning innate or learned

Answer 4

study of pecking for grains in newborn chickens
chicks begin to peck as soon as they can stand and walk
normally display no color preferences in pecking. at 30 hours old, chicks allowed to observe mechanical hen peck at either green or orange grains. Afterwards, chicks chose color pecked by mechanical hen 2/3 of time. No experience to learn imitation prior to this experience, so must be innate

Question 5

observational learning, where does it occur

Answer 5

occurs in species other than primates, but relatively rare and confined mostly to mammals an birds. appears to be hallmark of primate learning. Gives primates an advantage-don’t have to spend time trial and error

Question 6

tradition

Answer 6

over time individuals in a group build up a large repertoire of learned and socially transmitted behaviors, learning from each other and across generations

Question 7

tool use in primates

Answer 7

Jane Goodall’s observations of chimps
stripping the leaves of a stick and using it to poke into a crack in a log or termite nest, getting food. Inventing other tools as needed. tool use previously believed to be limited to humans. Considered a sign of exceptional intelligence

Question 8

tool use in other species

Answer 8

sea otter: cracks open shellfish by smashing them on a rock while floating on their backs
Egyptian vulture picks up rocks and drops them on ostrich eggs to break open their tough shells
woodpecker finch: uses sticks to extract larvae from dead wood and may modify the stick before using it
crow: makes hooks and probes out of twigs and leaves to search for insects under bark and in holes

Question 9

Boesche and Boesche: tool use

Answer 9

field studies of wild chimps in forests
seek out highly nutritious large nuts, with thick shells
heave learned to use hammer and anvil method hitting nut with tree branch against a rock or hard surface. Young chimps learn by observing adult chimps, usually mothers
also observed mothers actively instructing young in the technique, correcting their errors, demonstrating proper methods

Question 10

tool use as adaptive mechanism

Answer 10

no longer thought of as an indicator of intelligence. Used in species without special physical means to get prey. Use behavioral strategy rather than physical adaptation. Allows them to retain the flexibility to eat a variety of odds

Question 11

generalization rather than specialization

Answer 11

humans most generalizes species in animal kingdom
unique intellectual and language abilities
ability to manipulate objects to suit our purposes
ability to invent tools to solve our problems

Question 12

Harry harlow observations

Answer 12

studied social development in rhesus monkeys
mothers normally carry infants around clinging to bellies, nursing at will
infant explores visually at first and then actively, but always stays near mother, returning when startled
becomes independent by 2-4 years of age
Used METHOD OF DEPRIVATION take away something animal normally has and observe the impact
wire mother with bottle. wire mother with cloth
infant monkey needed comfort of warm soft mother figure CONTACT COMFORT

Question 13

Mason and Berkson

Answer 13

added to Harlow’s work. compared stationary and moving surrogate mothers. with moving surrogate mother more normal development, more interaction with other infant monkeys

Question 14

Harry Harlow five love systems

Answer 14

infant love
peer love
heterosexual love
maternal love
personal love

drastic effects of isolation from peers never learned to get along with others

Question 15

Harry Harlow correcting isolation problem

Answer 15

effects of social isolation could be corrected if caught before 6-7 months. Normal development with minimum of few minutes each day with peers PRINCIPLES OF RESILIENCE

Question 16

Harry Harlow Mother deprivation

Answer 16

motherless mother monkey (mmm’s) with the birth of mmm’s first infant, ignore or sit on infant, throw against wall, sometimes try and kill. mmm’s were normal mother with birth of second infant. experiential interactions of first offspring may have provided significant experience to mmm.
drastic effects of separation from mother after period of normal mothering. Infant developed disability similar to anaclitic depression. becomes passive, sad, upset, tearful, depressed. Human infants show same effects

Question 17

implications for Harlow’s research

Answer 17

normal monkey peer relationships do not develop without social interactions during infancy, including opportunity for observational learning to occur. if deprivation last long enough, permanent damage to ability to become functioning adult

Question 18

deprivation in human children

Answer 18

raised in orphanages basic needs met but little attention and stimulated. isolation prevented attachment. showed similarities to deprived monkeys. socially inept and unable to form close relationships. cognitively retarded to some degree, passive, lacking self control and tolerance for frustration. constantly in need of care

Question 19

study of antisocial personalities

Answer 19

behave selfishly and impulsively hurt others without conscience. typical early experiences include lacking mother figure significant lack of constructive social learning experiences social isolation, child abuse

Question 20

Steele and Pollock study of child abuse

Answer 20

60 families with well documented abuse studied for 5.5 years. consistent behavior patterns of abusing children. Parents own childhoods followed same pattern. Lacked social skills, asocial and isolated lives. unable to seek help from friends or relatives

Question 21

Skeel compare orphanage with institution

Answer 21

compared children remaining in orphanage with those transferred to insitution where they received mothering from mentally retarded adults and older children. 1.5 years later IQs of orphanage children decreased 26 points. IQs of transferred children increased 27 points
20 yrs later orphange children half had not completed 3rd grade, some still institutionalized. transferred children were self supporting half completed high school, most functioning as normal adults

Question 22

The critical role of early experiences

Answer 22

each study varies according to the specific nature of deprivation and the measures used to identify effects. not all findings have been replicated. however, finding seem parallel to harlow’s studies in monkeys- custodial care not sufficient, development of social behaviors requires early social interactions. effects of deprivation can be permanent depending on length of deprivation

Question 23

the role of play in development

Answer 23

bodily movemebts involving leaps, running, climbing, thorwing wrestling and other movements either alone with objects or with other animals.
may be:
primarily social interaction- wrestling chasing mock fighting
exercise- throwing climbing running
exploration- sensory inspection and manipulation
play behaviors are done for their own sake, for the pure pleasure of it, not to accomplish any particular thing (no goal)

Question 24

costs of play

Answer 24

loss of fuel or energy required for active movement and sometimes noisemaking. greater risk of injury in slipping or falling. greater exposure to predators, may be misinterpreted within the species, potentially leading to aggression. Many species have evolved clear signal to delineate playfulness called METACOMMUNICATION

Question 25

benefits of play

Answer 25

stimulates development of brain and NS
stimulates development of muscle tissues
may provide necessary practice at complex motor behaviors required to survive as adult
may provide practice in social behaviors necessary for courtship and mating, may provide experiences necessary in those species living in groups, allow young animal to explore its environment in comparative safety provided by other adults

Question 26

Fontaine; play in primates

Answer 26

in addition to long-term benefits of play, short term benefits exists. play promotes development of physical flexibility in arboreal monkeys. play adapted monkeys to function better in trees they inhabit

Question 27

Charles Darwin controversy

Answer 27

all animal species have evolved according ot principles of natural selection of fittest
determines genetics of a species which then determine characteristics of species

Question 28

E.O. Wilson’s sociobiology controversy

Answer 28

suggested that social behaviors have evolved just as physical characteristics have evolved by natural selection and determines genetics that affect behavioral tendencies. near the end of the book, suggests that human social behavior would be no different

Question 29

sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists

Answer 29

aim to identify psychological traits that lead to behaviors originally adaptive to humans. never intended to suggest genetic determinism
opposers do not believe that human behavior could have been shaped by genetics and natural selection. suggest that change occurs as a result of culture and experience. POsition tends to vary with education and experience (life science vs social science)

Question 30

controversy over human evolution impacts research

Answer 30

if human and animals evolve differently, there is no need to compare animals humans. If humans and animals evolve similarly, should compare human and animal species, should aim to learn as much about animals as possible, since we end up learning something about ourselves

Question 31

durham

Answer 31

attempted to integrate concepts of biological and cultural evolution. argued for COEVOLUTION suggesting that early human evolution was primarily organic and later human evolution was influenced by culture

Question 32

sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists common ground

Answer 32

both groups agree that evolution and behavior of early human ancestors were governed by genes and natural selection. thus likely that some physcial characteristics and behaviors of modern humans are result of evolutionary processes that took place long ago. can try to identify those existing characteristics and processes linked to survival of our ancestors. relative contribution of genes and culture remains controversial

Question 33

Human evolution

Answer 33

life has existed on earth for some 650 million years
true mammals appeared 150 mya
primates appeared 25 may
common ancestor of apes 8 mya
relatedness b/w humans and apes can be determined be comparing blood proteins and DNA

Question 34

australopithecus

Answer 34

earliest fossils accepted as hominids (members of our family Hominidae)
southern ape named after a fossil find in south africa. show well developed arch and big toe, suggest bipedalism. can tell by placement of the opening at base of skull for the spine

Question 35

bipedal walking evolution

Answer 35

early theories say it evolved to free hands to carry tools made by larger brains, but evidence of bipedalism before larger brain. others say males could more easily catch high energy food (meat) and carry it to females remaining with young at nest or campsite. also bipedal locomotion was more energy efficient, more adaptive when african environment became dry, forcing wider travel for main food (fruit). fundamental for evolution of other uniquely human traits. allowed to see objects farther away, allowed to manipulate env and objects such as tools

Question 36

east side theory

Answer 36

tectonic crisis 8 mya producing Great Rift Valley in Africa. chimp and gorilla deposits on west side, and hominid deposits on east side. wet jungle remained on west side not required apes to change. drier climate on eat side forced apes to evolve rapidly to survive in brushwood habitat- reduction in size of incisors and flattening of molars allowed more varied diet. Longer legs allowed better ground locomotion

Question 37

east side theory down from the trees hypothesis

Answer 37

further distance between trees forced apes to adopt bipedal locomotion. accompanying change in posture reduced area of body exposed to sun and permitted loss of body hair

Question 38

east side theory water baby hypothesis

Answer 38

bipedalism and lack of body hair were advantageous for swimming and foraging on beaches of ocean. later forced to abandon semiaquatic habitat when ocean receded, but retained features.

Question 39

Homo habilis

Answer 39

homo habilis oldest fossils to be designated as Homo found by Louis Leaky.
dated 1.75mya. Named Homo habilis (handyman) as simple stone tools found resembled australopithecus but iwth dental pattern much more similar to humans. Unknown whether Homo habilis is ancestor of modern humans or some other species of Homo alive at the time
described as hunter-gatherer (hunting not major feature) more likely scavengers
sexual dimorphism

Question 40

Homo erectus

Answer 40

2mya. homo habilis gave rise to homo erectus (the traveler). one of our ancestors. name means upright human although mistaken assumption that predecessors were stooped. Brain significantly larger than any preceding animal flatter face smaller teeth
first of our ancestors to run like us, hunt other animals, use fire, make tools from animal bones and stone

Question 41

Homo sapiens

Answer 41

ice ages forced early humans to find ways to adapt. earliest distinct subspecies of homo sapiens was the neanderthals
homo sapiens arrived with great leap forward, maybe occurred with beginning of animal domestication and development of agriculture

Question 42

neanderthals

Answer 42

lived in social groups marked by cooperation. made clothing and lived in caves, used fire, buried their dead. not our ancestors but they lived alongside our ancestors for many centuries

Question 43

Cro-Magnon Man

Answer 43

skilled hunters toolmakers and artists
anatomically modern- straight limbed and tall, thinner and rounder skull, higher forehead with no brow ridges, small projecting chin, oral anatomy identical to modern humans, so they could probably talk
made shelters from mammoth bone, rocks, clay branches and animal hide
created woven clothing, shell and ivory jewelry, sculptures musical instruments engraving colored paintings, may have created the first calendar
increased communication fostered better group coordination. used fire to herd large animals over cliffs or into canyons for slaughter

Question 44

what happened to the neanderthals and other early groups

Answer 44

could not have been inferior intelligence since neanderthals actually had brains 10% larger than ours. evidence indicates competition with Cro-Mognons for the same prey. Biochemical measures give no evidence that new arrivals mated with local inhabits. One suggestion is that evolution of biological factors underlying language occurred in our species alone, providing clear advantage

Question 45

Wills- Culture

Answer 45

wills suggests that biological evolution accelerated by development of human cultures. Necessary to preserve knowledge and experience and pass on to nect generation. Human brains grew larger to accommodate greater need to remember cultural information. greater brain capacity then allowed humans to create even more complex cultures and technology. thus larger brains and more complex cultures stimulated development of each other, accelerating pace of change through whole populations

Question 46

consequences of evolving larger brains

Answer 46

human infants born with larger brains and heads. females had to evolve wider and rounder pelvis and birth canal. Human birth is one of the longest and most difficult in nature. Humans require greater nurturance and care. Longer gestation period, develop more slowly, weaned later, reach sexual maturity later. require must parental attention protection and care

Question 47

neoteny

Answer 47

development pushed off to later and later stages. Humans stay more childlike for a longer period of time. Primed to learn throughout life, includes play. very few mammals continue to play throughout adulthood, monkeys otters dolphins humans

Question 48

human uniqueness

Answer 48

capacity for intelligence, creativity, problem solving
capacity for language
capacity for artistic expression
capacity for morality
capacity for technological innovation
capacity for consciousness and self awareness

Question 49

monogamy vs polygyny in humans

Answer 49

greater relative size of males indicates that there is or has been some polygynous competition for females

Question 50

jealousy theory

Answer 50

men experience more jealousy with sexual infidelity. Men must ensure paternity-uncertainty hypothesis. women must maintain support. Men are more upset over sexual infidelity, women are more upset over emotional infidelity

Question 51

male violence

Answer 51

adaptive significance of male aggression- might increase opportunities to mate, might help establish dominance and status. Female aggression oculd be disadvantage-potential for damage to unborn or young children, drains energy required for bearing and raising children