Ch 14 Blood Flashcards
1
Q
What is blood tissue composed of?
A
red cells, white cells and platelets in a fluid matrix called plasma
2
Q
Where is blood tissue located?
A
within blood vessels
3
Q
What is the function of blood tissue?
A
transport gases, nutrients and wastes
4
Q
What is a normal blood hematocrit?
A
45% cells and 55% plasma
5
Q
What can affect blood volume?
A
size, changes in fluid and electrolyte compisition, and amount of adipose tissue
6
Q
What is serum?
A
plasma minus clotting proteins
7
Q
What are the formed elenments in blood?
A
erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes
8
Q
What is the normal plasma volume?
A
40 ml/kg of body weight
9
Q
What is plasma?
A
The liquid in which peripheral blood cells are suspended
10
Q
What is plasma composed of?
A
water, electrolytes such as Na and Cl (0.9%), 7% plamsa proteins (such as albumin, fibrinogen, globulins), hormones, fats, amino acids, vitamins, carbohydrates, and lipo proteins
11
Q
What percentage of the total blood volume do erythrocytes occupy?
A
about 40-45% (30 ml/kg body weight)
12
Q
What percentage of the total blood volume do leukocytes and platelets ocupy?
A
about 1-2%
13
Q
What percentage of the body is blood?
A
8%
14
Q
What percent of the blood is plasma?
A
55%
15
Q
What percentage of the blood is formed elements?
A
45%
16
Q
Breakdown the makeup of plasma into perecentages
A
7% proteins, 91% water, 2% other solutes
17
Q
Breakdown the makeup of plasma proteins into percentages
A
albumins 58%, globulins 38%, fibrinogen 4%
18
Q
What are the other solutes present in plasma?
A
ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, regulatory substances
19
Q
How many platelets are in the formed elements of blood?
A
250-400 thousand per cubic mm
20
Q
How man leukocytes are in the formed elements of blood?
A
5-9 thousand per cubic mm
21
Q
How may erythrocytes are in the formed elements of blood?
A
4.2-6.2 million per cubic mm
22
Q
Breakdown the makeup of leukocytes in percentages
A
60-70% neutrophils, 20-25% lymphocytes, 3-8% monocytes, 2-4% eosinophils, 0.5-1% basophils
23
Q
Where are blood cells produced?
A
in bone marrow
24
Q
Where do blood cells stem from?
A
hemocytoblasts into various cell lines based on stimulation from colony stimulating factors
25
What are bioconcave disks that contain one thrd oxygen carrying hemoglobin by volume?
red blood cells
26
How is oxyhemoglobin formed?
when oxygen combines with hemoglobin, it's bright red
27
What do red blood cells discard during development?
their nuclei
28
What is the size of a mature human RBC?
~ 7-8 micrometers in diameter
29
What does the bulk of the cytoplasm of a RBC consist of?
hemoglobin (90-95% dry weight)
30
In addition to the nucleus, what else does a mature RBC lose?
golgi apparatus, centrioles, ER and most of its mitochondria
31
Why is a RBC in the shape of a bioconcave disk?
to acheive a maximum surface area to cytoplasmic volume ratio
32
What shape do RBCs assume in capillaries?
a cup shape
33
What is a RBC enclosed in?
bilayered cell membrane
34
What is the purpose of the bilayered cell membrane?
it is flexible and elastic enough to allow the cell to move through capillaries
35
What purpose do specrtin and actin serve in a RBC?
they are peripheral proteins that have a cytoskeletal function
36
What is the surface area of a RBC?
~128 square micrometers, so on average a person has ~ 3840 square micrometers of RBC membrane area for respiratory exchange
37
Describe the structure of hemoglobin
four globular protein subunits which each contain a single heme molecule, a porphyrin rins surrounding a single ion of iron
38
What is a reticulocyte?
a less mature erythrocyte
39
What do reticulocytes contain?
residual ribonucleoprotein particles that put a bluish hue to the cell on Romanowsky staining
40
What is the purpose of methylene blue in reticulocytes?
it can be used to identify the ribosomal reminants in reticlocytes
41
What is the frequency of reticulocytes?
1-2% of RBCs, after ~1 day in peripheral blood, they're indistinguishable from mature RBCs
42
What is the function of erythrocytes?
to provide an environment for the iron containing respiratory pigment heme, which is complexed to 2 alpha and 2 beta globulin chains comprising the hemoglobin molecule
43
What is the major physiologic role of hemoglobin?
oxygen and CO2 transport
44
What is the purpose of the enzymes present in erythrocytes?
they participate in the glycolytic and hexose monophosphate biochemical pathways
45
What is the typical red blood cell count for males
4.6 -6.2 million cells per mm3
46
What is the typical red blood cell count for females?
4,5-5.1 million cells per mm3
47
What does the number of RBCs measure?
the blood's oxygen carrying capacity
48
What is anisocytosis?
abnormalities in RBCs
49
What are erythroplastids?
erythrocytes
50
What are the characteristics of poikilocytes?
crenated, sickling cells
51
What is the life span of a mature erythrocyte?
~120 days in circulation
52
What happens to the surface area as a RBC ages?
the surface area decreases relative to cytoplasmic volume resulting in a sphere form which is more rigid and is ultimately trapped in splenic cords
53
What is the first step in RBC destruction?
with age, RBCs become increasingly fragile and are damaged by passing through narrow capillaries
54
What is the second step in RBC destruction?
macrophages in the liver and spleen phagocytize damaged RBCs
55
What is the third step in RBC destruction?
hemoglobin from the decomposed RBCs is converted into heme and globin
56
What is the fourth step in RBC destruction?
heme is decomposed into iron and biliverdin
57
What is the fifth step in RBC destruction?
iron is recycled into new hemoglobin or stored in the liver
58
What is the sixth step in RBC destruction?
some biliverdin is converted into bilirubin
59
What is the seventh step in RBC destruction?
biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in bile as bile pigments
60
What is the first step in RBC production?
in the embryo and fetus, RBC production occurs in the yolk sace, liver and spleen. In adults it's in red bone marrow
61
What is the second step in RBC production?
hemocytoblasts give rise to erythroblasts that also reproduce and give rise to many new cells
62
What is the third step in RBC production?
nuclei are pinched off
63
What is the fourth step in RBC production?
new RBCS are called reticuloytes at this stage they leave the bone marrow and enter the bloodstream
64
What is the fifth step in RBC production?
average life span of RBC is ~120 days
65
What is the sixth step in RBC production?
the total number of RBCs remains relatively constant due to a negative feedback mechanism utilizing the hormone erythropoietin, which is released in response to low oxygen levels detected in the kidneys and liver
66
What are Vitamins B12 and folic acid needed for?
DNA synhesis, so they're neccessary for the reproduction of all body cells, especially in hematopoietic tissue
67
What is iron needed for?
hemoglobin synthesis
68
What causes anemia?
deficiency in RBCs or quantity of hemoglobin
69
How many types of leukocytes are there?
5
70
What is the purpose of leukocytes?
to help defend the body against disease
71
How are the types of leukocytes distinguished?
size, granular appearance of the cytoplasm, shape of the nucleus, and staining characteristics
72
Which are the granular leukocytes?
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
73
Which are the agranular leukocytes?
monocytes and lymphocytes
74
What are polymorphonuclear leukocytes?
granulocytes
75
What do neutrophils do?
phagocytize bacteria, fungi and some bacteria
76
What do eosinophils do?
moderate allergic reactions and defend against parasitic infections
77
How do eosinophils combat irritants that produce allergies
by entering tissue fluid and producing antihistamines that detoxify and destroy antigen antibody complexes
78
What do basophils do?
migrate to damaged tissues and release histamine to promote inflammation and heparin to inhibit blood clotting
79
How are basophils active in allergic reactions?
enter tissue fluid and become mast cells, produce heparin, histamine and seratonin
80
What do monocytes do?
they leave the bloodstream to become phagocytes
81
What do lymphocytes do?
they are the major players in specific immune reactions and some (plasma cells) produce antibodies
82
Describe the nucleus of a neutrophil
lobulated with 2-4 lobe or more (more mature cells are highly lobulated), nuclear appendages shaped like hooks, clubs, drumsticks, etc and have band forms
83
What is a drumstick?
Barr body found in 2-3% of female's neutrophils
84
What is a band form?
neutrophils recently released from bone marrow that have a simple, elongated, non lobed nucleus (immature neutrophils)
85
What are the two types of granules?
specific granules, and azurophilic granules
86
What are some other names for specific granules?
B granules, secondary granules
87
What color do specific granules stain?
pinkish
88
What do specific granules contain?
lysozymes, lactoferrin, alkaline phosphatase and other basic proteins with bacterial activity
89
What is the function of the lysozyme in specific granules?
acts against parts of bacterial cell walls
90
What is the function of the lactoferrin in specific granules?
it is another antibacterial substance
91
What are some other names for azurophilic granules?
A granules, primary granules
92
What color do azurophilic granules stain?
reddish purple
93
What do azurophilic granules contain?
lysosomal enzymes, they are modified lysosomes
94
Where are azurophilic granules most commonly found?
neutrophilic precursors
95
What does the cytoplasm of azurophilic granules contain?
glycogen and numerous filaments and microtubules which function in movement
96
What is a drumstick?
In females the inactivated X chromosomes can appear as an appendage
97
What is the function of a neitrophil?
First line if defense against microorganisms, especially bacteria
98
Describe the action of neutrophils
They are active phagocytes with particle taken up in a vacuole, pH lowered by membrane proton pump,then azurophilic granules fuse and empty. Killing and digesting occur
99
What do lysozymes in neutrophils destroy?
Cell wall of gram positive bacteria
100
How do neutrophils undergo chemotaxis?
They are attracted by devitalized tissue, bacteria, foreign bodies and complement components
101
How can normally non specific phagocytosis be enhanced?
If the body has made specific antibodies due to previous exposure.
102
What is the purpose of blood borne antibody (IgB) in neutrophils?
It binds to surface antigen or bacteria and then c3b binds to form plasma (opsonins), facilitates phagocytoses
103
Describe the nucleus of eosinophils
Lobulated (2 or 3-4 lobes) not as lobulated as neutrophils
104
How do granules appear in eosinophils ?
Uniform in size and round
105
What is the function of eosinophils?
Combat irritants that produce allergies by entering tissue fluid And producing antihistamines that detoxify and destroy antigen antibody complexes, also active against parasites (roundworms)
106
Describe the size of eosinophils
Mature eosinophil is about the same size as a neutrophil, 12-15 micrometer diameter in dry smear
107
Describe the cytoplasm in eosinophils
Similar to neutrophil but specific granules are contractile and stain bright pink or orange (eosinophilic) with Romanowsky stain
108
What does the matrix of granules in eosinophils contain?
Lysosomal enzymes, have a high content of peroxidase, arylsulfatase, acid phosphatase, RNase and cathespin
109
What is the life span of an eosinophil?
8-12 days
110
In what types of individuals are eosinophil numbers high?
People with allergies of parasitic infections
111
What is the role of eosinophils in chemotaxis?
These cells are known to phagocytose antigen antibody complexes and inactivate mediators of inflammation such ad leukotrienes
112
What is the role of the major basic protein in eosinophils?
Kills parasitic worms
113
Describe the nucleus of a basophil
Lobulated nucleus, usually on 2-3 lobes, nucleus shape is obscured by granules
114
How do granules appear in basophils?
Irregular in size and shape
115
What do granules contain in basophils?
Histamine and heparin, also prostoglandin and a platelet activating factor, slow reacting substance of anaphalylaxis (leukotriene), serotonin, and eosinophil chemotactic factor
116
What mediates the hypersensitivity reaction in basophils
The secretory cell
117
describe a basophils role in the hypersensitivity reaction
they can bind IgE antibody and when subsequently exposed to the corresponding antigen, it can release vasoactive substances leading to hypersensiitivity reactions
118
describe the anatomy of small lymphocytes
nucleus round, thin rim of lightly basophilic cytoplasm
119
what is the life span of short lived lymphocytes?
only a few days
120
what is the life span of long lived lymphocytes?
months- years, these are "memory cells"
121
What are T lymphocytes?
processed by thymus, cel mediated immunity, non specific
122
What are B lymphocytes?
humoral immunity, antibody mediated, specific
123
describe the nucleus of lymphocytes
single, deeply stained, spherical nucleus, can have an indention. chromatin is condensed into coarse clumps, nucleus surrounded by thin rim of lightly basophilic cytoplasm
124
what does they cytoplasm of lymphocytes contain?
a few nonspecific granules (lysosomes), a few mitochondria, many ribosomes and a goli apparatus
125
How can B and T lymphocytes be distinguished from one another?
by lifespan, function, surface receptors, site of differentiation
126
Describe the different functions of T lymphocytes
cytotoxic T cells can elaborate cytotoxic agents, they can make lymphokines (interferon, macrophage , migration inhibitor factor, chemotactic factors for basophils, some are memory cells
127
Describe the different functioncs of B lymohocytes
some divide and diffferentiate into plasma cells in tissue, some are memory cells
128
How are B lymphocytes immunologicaly characterized?
Ig on their cell membrane
129
where do plasma cells derive from?
B lymphocytes
130
Describe the contents of a plasma cell
have an eccentrically placed nucleus. contain abundant amounts of RER whose cisternae can be filled with antibody and have well developed Golgi
131
what percentage of lymphocytes are in the peripheral blood?
about 20-50% circulating
132
What is the percentage breakdown on the lymphocytes circulating?
80% t cells, 15% B cells, 5% null (not T or B surface antigens)
133
Where is plasma usually not seen?
in peripheral blood
134
describe the nucleus of monocytes
horse shoe or rounded shape
135
describe the cytoplasm of monocytes
has "ground glass" appearance, contains fine azurophilic granules (lysosomes), small amounts of RER, free ribosomes, polyribosomes and a well developed Golgi (making lysosomes), pinocytotic (clear) vacuoles are frequently seen here
136
describe the granules of monocytes
not distinct or obvious, only weakly basophilic
137
What happens to monocytes in tissues?
they become macrophages
138
what are monocytes and lymphocytes refered to and why?
mononuclear white blood cells, because their nuclei are not segmented
139
what are the largest cells in the body?
monocytes
140
What does the cell membran of Monocytes contain?
many microvilli
141
What percent of the peripheral blood is monocytes?
3-8%, with a 3 day life span
142
What is the role of monocytes?
become macrophages and phagocytize tissue, debris an infectious material, interact with lymphocytes and play essential role with antigen interaction of immunocompetent cells
143
describe diapedesis
way by which leukocytes squeeze between cells lining walls of blood vessels, they then attack bacteria and debris
144
What happens when infectious agents inavde tissues?
certain leukocytes release histamine, which causes more blood to flow into the area, producing inflammation, and preventing the spread of the infectious agents to other areas, WBCs are attracted to area by positive chemotaxis, at the same time
145
What is a normal WBC count?
5,000-10,000 WBCs per cubic mm of blood
146
What can a differential WBC count do?
help pinpoint the nature of the illness, telling if it was caused by bacteria or viruses
147
What is leukocytosis?
increased number of WBCs, can occur after an infection
148
What is leukopenia?
decreased WBC count (lower than normal), occurs from variety of causes, including HIV AIDS
149
What are blood platelets?
fragments of megakaryocytes, that are capable of amoeboid motion
150
What do platelets do?
help repair damaged blood vessels by adhering to their broken edges
151
What is a normal platelet count?
130,000 to 360,000 platelets per cubic mm
152
describe the structure of a platelet
non nucleated, flat, biconvex, round or ovoid discs, derived from bone marrow megakaryocytes
153
what does a platelet contain?
pale-blue hyalomere with a system of invaginating channels (open canalicular system)
154
What leads to hypersensitive reactions in basophils?
Basophils bing IgE antibody and when subsequently exposed to the corresponding antigen it can release vasoactive substances which leads to hypersensitivity reactions
155
Describe the nucleus of lymphocytes
Round nucleus containing chromatin condensed into coarse clumps, with thin rim of basophilic cytoplasm surrounding it
156
How long do short lived lymphocytes live?
only a few days
157
How long do long lived lymphocytes live?
Months to years , memory T cells and some B cells
158
What are T lymphocytes?
Processed by thymus, function in cell mediated immunity, non specific
159
What are B lymphocytes?
Humoral immunity (antibody mediated), specific
160
What does the cytoplasm of a lymphocyte contain?
A few non specific granules (lysosomes), a few mitochondria, many ribosomes and a Golgi apparatus
161
What are some of the cytotoxic elements that some T cells can elaborate?
Lymphokines (including interferon, macrophage, migration inhibitor factor, chemotactic factors for basophils)
162
How are B lymphocytes immunologically characterized?
By Ig on their cell membrane
163
What can some B lymphocytes do?
Some can divide and differentiate into plasma cells in tissue
