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Anatomy and Physiology II > Ch 14 Blood > Flashcards

Ch 14 Blood Flashcards

1
Q

What is blood tissue composed of?

A

red cells, white cells and platelets in a fluid matrix called plasma

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2
Q

Where is blood tissue located?

A

within blood vessels

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3
Q

What is the function of blood tissue?

A

transport gases, nutrients and wastes

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4
Q

What is a normal blood hematocrit?

A

45% cells and 55% plasma

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5
Q

What can affect blood volume?

A

size, changes in fluid and electrolyte compisition, and amount of adipose tissue

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6
Q

What is serum?

A

plasma minus clotting proteins

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7
Q

What are the formed elenments in blood?

A

erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes

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8
Q

What is the normal plasma volume?

A

40 ml/kg of body weight

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9
Q

What is plasma?

A

The liquid in which peripheral blood cells are suspended

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10
Q

What is plasma composed of?

A

water, electrolytes such as Na and Cl (0.9%), 7% plamsa proteins (such as albumin, fibrinogen, globulins), hormones, fats, amino acids, vitamins, carbohydrates, and lipo proteins

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11
Q

What percentage of the total blood volume do erythrocytes occupy?

A

about 40-45% (30 ml/kg body weight)

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12
Q

What percentage of the total blood volume do leukocytes and platelets ocupy?

A

about 1-2%

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13
Q

What percentage of the body is blood?

A

8%

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14
Q

What percent of the blood is plasma?

A

55%

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15
Q

What percentage of the blood is formed elements?

A

45%

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16
Q

Breakdown the makeup of plasma into perecentages

A

7% proteins, 91% water, 2% other solutes

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17
Q

Breakdown the makeup of plasma proteins into percentages

A

albumins 58%, globulins 38%, fibrinogen 4%

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18
Q

What are the other solutes present in plasma?

A

ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, regulatory substances

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19
Q

How many platelets are in the formed elements of blood?

A

250-400 thousand per cubic mm

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20
Q

How man leukocytes are in the formed elements of blood?

A

5-9 thousand per cubic mm

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21
Q

How may erythrocytes are in the formed elements of blood?

A

4.2-6.2 million per cubic mm

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22
Q

Breakdown the makeup of leukocytes in percentages

A

60-70% neutrophils, 20-25% lymphocytes, 3-8% monocytes, 2-4% eosinophils, 0.5-1% basophils

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23
Q

Where are blood cells produced?

A

in bone marrow

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24
Q

Where do blood cells stem from?

A

hemocytoblasts into various cell lines based on stimulation from colony stimulating factors

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25
Q

What are bioconcave disks that contain one thrd oxygen carrying hemoglobin by volume?

A

red blood cells

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26
Q

How is oxyhemoglobin formed?

A

when oxygen combines with hemoglobin, it’s bright red

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27
Q

What do red blood cells discard during development?

A

their nuclei

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28
Q

What is the size of a mature human RBC?

A

~ 7-8 micrometers in diameter

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29
Q

What does the bulk of the cytoplasm of a RBC consist of?

A

hemoglobin (90-95% dry weight)

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30
Q

In addition to the nucleus, what else does a mature RBC lose?

A

golgi apparatus, centrioles, ER and most of its mitochondria

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31
Q

Why is a RBC in the shape of a bioconcave disk?

A

to acheive a maximum surface area to cytoplasmic volume ratio

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32
Q

What shape do RBCs assume in capillaries?

A

a cup shape

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33
Q

What is a RBC enclosed in?

A

bilayered cell membrane

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34
Q

What is the purpose of the bilayered cell membrane?

A

it is flexible and elastic enough to allow the cell to move through capillaries

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35
Q

What purpose do specrtin and actin serve in a RBC?

A

they are peripheral proteins that have a cytoskeletal function

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36
Q

What is the surface area of a RBC?

A

~128 square micrometers, so on average a person has ~ 3840 square micrometers of RBC membrane area for respiratory exchange

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37
Q

Describe the structure of hemoglobin

A

four globular protein subunits which each contain a single heme molecule, a porphyrin rins surrounding a single ion of iron

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38
Q

What is a reticulocyte?

A

a less mature erythrocyte

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39
Q

What do reticulocytes contain?

A

residual ribonucleoprotein particles that put a bluish hue to the cell on Romanowsky staining

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40
Q

What is the purpose of methylene blue in reticulocytes?

A

it can be used to identify the ribosomal reminants in reticlocytes

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41
Q

What is the frequency of reticulocytes?

A

1-2% of RBCs, after ~1 day in peripheral blood, they’re indistinguishable from mature RBCs

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42
Q

What is the function of erythrocytes?

A

to provide an environment for the iron containing respiratory pigment heme, which is complexed to 2 alpha and 2 beta globulin chains comprising the hemoglobin molecule

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43
Q

What is the major physiologic role of hemoglobin?

A

oxygen and CO2 transport

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44
Q

What is the purpose of the enzymes present in erythrocytes?

A

they participate in the glycolytic and hexose monophosphate biochemical pathways

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45
Q

What is the typical red blood cell count for males

A

4.6 -6.2 million cells per mm3

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46
Q

What is the typical red blood cell count for females?

A

4,5-5.1 million cells per mm3

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47
Q

What does the number of RBCs measure?

A

the blood’s oxygen carrying capacity

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48
Q

What is anisocytosis?

A

abnormalities in RBCs

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49
Q

What are erythroplastids?

A

erythrocytes

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50
Q

What are the characteristics of poikilocytes?

A

crenated, sickling cells

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51
Q

What is the life span of a mature erythrocyte?

A

~120 days in circulation

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52
Q

What happens to the surface area as a RBC ages?

A

the surface area decreases relative to cytoplasmic volume resulting in a sphere form which is more rigid and is ultimately trapped in splenic cords

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53
Q

What is the first step in RBC destruction?

A

with age, RBCs become increasingly fragile and are damaged by passing through narrow capillaries

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54
Q

What is the second step in RBC destruction?

A

macrophages in the liver and spleen phagocytize damaged RBCs

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55
Q

What is the third step in RBC destruction?

A

hemoglobin from the decomposed RBCs is converted into heme and globin

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56
Q

What is the fourth step in RBC destruction?

A

heme is decomposed into iron and biliverdin

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57
Q

What is the fifth step in RBC destruction?

A

iron is recycled into new hemoglobin or stored in the liver

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58
Q

What is the sixth step in RBC destruction?

A

some biliverdin is converted into bilirubin

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59
Q

What is the seventh step in RBC destruction?

A

biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in bile as bile pigments

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60
Q

What is the first step in RBC production?

A

in the embryo and fetus, RBC production occurs in the yolk sace, liver and spleen. In adults it’s in red bone marrow

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61
Q

What is the second step in RBC production?

A

hemocytoblasts give rise to erythroblasts that also reproduce and give rise to many new cells

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62
Q

What is the third step in RBC production?

A

nuclei are pinched off

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63
Q

What is the fourth step in RBC production?

A

new RBCS are called reticuloytes at this stage they leave the bone marrow and enter the bloodstream

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64
Q

What is the fifth step in RBC production?

A

average life span of RBC is ~120 days

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65
Q

What is the sixth step in RBC production?

A

the total number of RBCs remains relatively constant due to a negative feedback mechanism utilizing the hormone erythropoietin, which is released in response to low oxygen levels detected in the kidneys and liver

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66
Q

What are Vitamins B12 and folic acid needed for?

A

DNA synhesis, so they’re neccessary for the reproduction of all body cells, especially in hematopoietic tissue

67
Q

What is iron needed for?

A

hemoglobin synthesis

68
Q

What causes anemia?

A

deficiency in RBCs or quantity of hemoglobin

69
Q

How many types of leukocytes are there?

70
Q

What is the purpose of leukocytes?

A

to help defend the body against disease

71
Q

How are the types of leukocytes distinguished?

A

size, granular appearance of the cytoplasm, shape of the nucleus, and staining characteristics

72
Q

Which are the granular leukocytes?

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

73
Q

Which are the agranular leukocytes?

A

monocytes and lymphocytes

74
Q

What are polymorphonuclear leukocytes?

A

granulocytes

75
Q

What do neutrophils do?

A

phagocytize bacteria, fungi and some bacteria

76
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A

moderate allergic reactions and defend against parasitic infections

77
Q

How do eosinophils combat irritants that produce allergies

A

by entering tissue fluid and producing antihistamines that detoxify and destroy antigen antibody complexes

78
Q

What do basophils do?

A

migrate to damaged tissues and release histamine to promote inflammation and heparin to inhibit blood clotting

79
Q

How are basophils active in allergic reactions?

A

enter tissue fluid and become mast cells, produce heparin, histamine and seratonin

80
Q

What do monocytes do?

A

they leave the bloodstream to become phagocytes

81
Q

What do lymphocytes do?

A

they are the major players in specific immune reactions and some (plasma cells) produce antibodies

82
Q

Describe the nucleus of a neutrophil

A

lobulated with 2-4 lobe or more (more mature cells are highly lobulated), nuclear appendages shaped like hooks, clubs, drumsticks, etc and have band forms

83
Q

What is a drumstick?

A

Barr body found in 2-3% of female’s neutrophils

84
Q

What is a band form?

A

neutrophils recently released from bone marrow that have a simple, elongated, non lobed nucleus (immature neutrophils)

85
Q

What are the two types of granules?

A

specific granules, and azurophilic granules

86
Q

What are some other names for specific granules?

A

B granules, secondary granules

87
Q

What color do specific granules stain?

88
Q

What do specific granules contain?

A

lysozymes, lactoferrin, alkaline phosphatase and other basic proteins with bacterial activity

89
Q

What is the function of the lysozyme in specific granules?

A

acts against parts of bacterial cell walls

90
Q

What is the function of the lactoferrin in specific granules?

A

it is another antibacterial substance

91
Q

What are some other names for azurophilic granules?

A

A granules, primary granules

92
Q

What color do azurophilic granules stain?

A

reddish purple

93
Q

What do azurophilic granules contain?

A

lysosomal enzymes, they are modified lysosomes

94
Q

Where are azurophilic granules most commonly found?

A

neutrophilic precursors

95
Q

What does the cytoplasm of azurophilic granules contain?

A

glycogen and numerous filaments and microtubules which function in movement

96
Q

What is a drumstick?

A

In females the inactivated X chromosomes can appear as an appendage

97
Q

What is the function of a neitrophil?

A

First line if defense against microorganisms, especially bacteria

98
Q

Describe the action of neutrophils

A

They are active phagocytes with particle taken up in a vacuole, pH lowered by membrane proton pump,then azurophilic granules fuse and empty. Killing and digesting occur

99
Q

What do lysozymes in neutrophils destroy?

A

Cell wall of gram positive bacteria

100
Q

How do neutrophils undergo chemotaxis?

A

They are attracted by devitalized tissue, bacteria, foreign bodies and complement components

101
Q

How can normally non specific phagocytosis be enhanced?

A

If the body has made specific antibodies due to previous exposure.

102
Q

What is the purpose of blood borne antibody (IgB) in neutrophils?

A

It binds to surface antigen or bacteria and then c3b binds to form plasma (opsonins), facilitates phagocytoses

103
Q

Describe the nucleus of eosinophils

A

Lobulated (2 or 3-4 lobes) not as lobulated as neutrophils

104
Q

How do granules appear in eosinophils ?

A

Uniform in size and round

105
Q

What is the function of eosinophils?

A

Combat irritants that produce allergies by entering tissue fluid And producing antihistamines that detoxify and destroy antigen antibody complexes, also active against parasites (roundworms)

106
Q

Describe the size of eosinophils

A

Mature eosinophil is about the same size as a neutrophil, 12-15 micrometer diameter in dry smear

107
Q

Describe the cytoplasm in eosinophils

A

Similar to neutrophil but specific granules are contractile and stain bright pink or orange (eosinophilic) with Romanowsky stain

108
Q

What does the matrix of granules in eosinophils contain?

A

Lysosomal enzymes, have a high content of peroxidase, arylsulfatase, acid phosphatase, RNase and cathespin

109
Q

What is the life span of an eosinophil?

110
Q

In what types of individuals are eosinophil numbers high?

A

People with allergies of parasitic infections

111
Q

What is the role of eosinophils in chemotaxis?

A

These cells are known to phagocytose antigen antibody complexes and inactivate mediators of inflammation such ad leukotrienes

112
Q

What is the role of the major basic protein in eosinophils?

A

Kills parasitic worms

113
Q

Describe the nucleus of a basophil

A

Lobulated nucleus, usually on 2-3 lobes, nucleus shape is obscured by granules

114
Q

How do granules appear in basophils?

A

Irregular in size and shape

115
Q

What do granules contain in basophils?

A

Histamine and heparin, also prostoglandin and a platelet activating factor, slow reacting substance of anaphalylaxis (leukotriene), serotonin, and eosinophil chemotactic factor

116
Q

What mediates the hypersensitivity reaction in basophils

A

The secretory cell

117
Q

describe a basophils role in the hypersensitivity reaction

A

they can bind IgE antibody and when subsequently exposed to the corresponding antigen, it can release vasoactive substances leading to hypersensiitivity reactions

118
Q

describe the anatomy of small lymphocytes

A

nucleus round, thin rim of lightly basophilic cytoplasm

119
Q

what is the life span of short lived lymphocytes?

A

only a few days

120
Q

what is the life span of long lived lymphocytes?

A

months- years, these are “memory cells”

121
Q

What are T lymphocytes?

A

processed by thymus, cel mediated immunity, non specific

122
Q

What are B lymphocytes?

A

humoral immunity, antibody mediated, specific

123
Q

describe the nucleus of lymphocytes

A

single, deeply stained, spherical nucleus, can have an indention. chromatin is condensed into coarse clumps, nucleus surrounded by thin rim of lightly basophilic cytoplasm

124
Q

what does they cytoplasm of lymphocytes contain?

A

a few nonspecific granules (lysosomes), a few mitochondria, many ribosomes and a goli apparatus

125
Q

How can B and T lymphocytes be distinguished from one another?

A

by lifespan, function, surface receptors, site of differentiation

126
Q

Describe the different functions of T lymphocytes

A

cytotoxic T cells can elaborate cytotoxic agents, they can make lymphokines (interferon, macrophage , migration inhibitor factor, chemotactic factors for basophils, some are memory cells

127
Q

Describe the different functioncs of B lymohocytes

A

some divide and diffferentiate into plasma cells in tissue, some are memory cells

128
Q

How are B lymphocytes immunologicaly characterized?

A

Ig on their cell membrane

129
Q

where do plasma cells derive from?

A

B lymphocytes

130
Q

Describe the contents of a plasma cell

A

have an eccentrically placed nucleus. contain abundant amounts of RER whose cisternae can be filled with antibody and have well developed Golgi

131
Q

what percentage of lymphocytes are in the peripheral blood?

A

about 20-50% circulating

132
Q

What is the percentage breakdown on the lymphocytes circulating?

A

80% t cells, 15% B cells, 5% null (not T or B surface antigens)

133
Q

Where is plasma usually not seen?

A

in peripheral blood

134
Q

describe the nucleus of monocytes

A

horse shoe or rounded shape

135
Q

describe the cytoplasm of monocytes

A

has “ground glass” appearance, contains fine azurophilic granules (lysosomes), small amounts of RER, free ribosomes, polyribosomes and a well developed Golgi (making lysosomes), pinocytotic (clear) vacuoles are frequently seen here

136
Q

describe the granules of monocytes

A

not distinct or obvious, only weakly basophilic

137
Q

What happens to monocytes in tissues?

A

they become macrophages

138
Q

what are monocytes and lymphocytes refered to and why?

A

mononuclear white blood cells, because their nuclei are not segmented

139
Q

what are the largest cells in the body?

140
Q

What does the cell membran of Monocytes contain?

A

many microvilli

141
Q

What percent of the peripheral blood is monocytes?

A

3-8%, with a 3 day life span

142
Q

What is the role of monocytes?

A

become macrophages and phagocytize tissue, debris an infectious material, interact with lymphocytes and play essential role with antigen interaction of immunocompetent cells

143
Q

describe diapedesis

A

way by which leukocytes squeeze between cells lining walls of blood vessels, they then attack bacteria and debris

144
Q

What happens when infectious agents inavde tissues?

A

certain leukocytes release histamine, which causes more blood to flow into the area, producing inflammation, and preventing the spread of the infectious agents to other areas, WBCs are attracted to area by positive chemotaxis, at the same time

145
Q

What is a normal WBC count?

A

5,000-10,000 WBCs per cubic mm of blood

146
Q

What can a differential WBC count do?

A

help pinpoint the nature of the illness, telling if it was caused by bacteria or viruses

147
Q

What is leukocytosis?

A

increased number of WBCs, can occur after an infection

148
Q

What is leukopenia?

A

decreased WBC count (lower than normal), occurs from variety of causes, including HIV AIDS

149
Q

What are blood platelets?

A

fragments of megakaryocytes, that are capable of amoeboid motion

150
Q

What do platelets do?

A

help repair damaged blood vessels by adhering to their broken edges

151
Q

What is a normal platelet count?

A

130,000 to 360,000 platelets per cubic mm

152
Q

describe the structure of a platelet

A

non nucleated, flat, biconvex, round or ovoid discs, derived from bone marrow megakaryocytes

153
Q

what does a platelet contain?

A

pale-blue hyalomere with a system of invaginating channels (open canalicular system)

154
Q

What leads to hypersensitive reactions in basophils?

A

Basophils bing IgE antibody and when subsequently exposed to the corresponding antigen it can release vasoactive substances which leads to hypersensitivity reactions

155
Q

Describe the nucleus of lymphocytes

A

Round nucleus containing chromatin condensed into coarse clumps, with thin rim of basophilic cytoplasm surrounding it

156
Q

How long do short lived lymphocytes live?

A

only a few days

157
Q

How long do long lived lymphocytes live?

A

Months to years , memory T cells and some B cells

158
Q

What are T lymphocytes?

A

Processed by thymus, function in cell mediated immunity, non specific

159
Q

What are B lymphocytes?

A

Humoral immunity (antibody mediated), specific

160
Q

What does the cytoplasm of a lymphocyte contain?

A

A few non specific granules (lysosomes), a few mitochondria, many ribosomes and a Golgi apparatus

161
Q

What are some of the cytotoxic elements that some T cells can elaborate?

A

Lymphokines (including interferon, macrophage, migration inhibitor factor, chemotactic factors for basophils)

162
Q

How are B lymphocytes immunologically characterized?

A

By Ig on their cell membrane

163
Q

What can some B lymphocytes do?

A

Some can divide and differentiate into plasma cells in tissue

Anatomy and Physiology II (1 decks)

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