CGSC- Final Exam Flashcards
Anchoring
when you are judging someone
-the “anchor” is what you compare to when you evaluate
-ex) restaurants will put very expensive foods on a menu, to make other options look reasonable
-upwards comparison can make you seem awful as you’re comparing to something unrealistic
Contrast effect/context effect
-the tendency to mentally upgrade or downgrade an object when comparing it to a contrasting object
-two very similar biases
-similar to anchoring as its based on comparing two things
-ex) if men look at lots of pictures of beautiful women, they will rate their wives as less attractive
Distinction bias
-things appear more different when viewed simultaneously
-or when you’re thinking of two different things
-if you are observing two things at the same time, you will focus more on their differences when evaluating
Bandwagon Effect
you believe things because everyone around you believes the same things
-this can be bad because an entire culture could be wrong
-why cults try to keep people from talking to others
Herd Instinct
-is believing what everyone else does to avoid social conflict
-ex) someone is vegan just because their boyfriend
-don’t want to rock the boat to avoid social ostracization
Hostile Media Effect
when you watch the new, you tend to think they are hostile to your political views
-even if the news is neutral, those with strong views, believe the news is being critical/negative towards your views
Endowment Effect/ Loss Aversion
-people will demand more to give up an object than they are willing to pay to get it
-people will pay more or put in more effort to avoid loosing something than they would ever put into getting it
-once you own something, you find it more valuable
-why stores have generous return policies (why dont you just buy it, you can always return it later)
Temporal Discounting
-we value things in the future less than things now
-asking a favour or agreeing to things in the future
when people are in a chaotic environment the temporal discounting is increased
-empirical studies show people are more hyperbolic
Moral Credential Effect
-thinking of yourself as having acted morally can make you allow yourself to behave badly
-people will compensate to reach an equilibrium in many contexts
-people who wrote an essay against racism were less likely to give money to a panhandler afterwards
-how much good you thought you did rather than how much good you actually did
Imagining You’re Good
-if you imagine yourself as a good person, then you’re MORE likely to be good
-depends on if you are thinking of goodness in terms of seld-concept or in terms of satisfying some goal
Risk Compensation
each individual is oaky with taking a certain level of risk throughout their everyday lives
-ex) seatbelts- drivers are safer but deaths are passed onto others
-ex) dietary supplements make people eat more poorly and exercise less
Confirmation Bias
you accept, seek out, and remember things that support your views
-almost like a risk thermostat
-you interpret things in a way that supports your views (ex. horoscopes)
Negativity Bias
people pay more attention to negative information
-maybe because of evolutionary history that makes negative news more important to us
-people remember dangerous things more
-seeing dangers in more normal things
Omission Bias
-we think that harming is worse than not doing something that causes equal harm
-ex) people think killing someone is worse than letting them die
Outcome Bias
judging a decision based on what ended up happening rather than on the information available at the decision-making time
-is it right to punish a person who kills someone while drunk driving more severely than another drunk driver who gets lucky and doesn’t hit someone
Planning Fallacy
we underestimate how long it will take us to complete tasks in the future
-makes it easy for us to overlook ourselves
Wishful Thinking
believing something because you want it to be true
Availability Heuristic
assuming that things are most easily brought to memory are more common or probable
-a problem that is vivid and emotional things are easier to bring to memory
-when the news shows only murders, you tend to think murders are more prevalent than they are
Base Rate Neglect
if presented with related base rate information and specific information people tend to ignore the based rate in favour of individuation information, rather than correctly integrating the two
-disease death percentage- if 80% and 20% life, the 20% is ignored
Belief Bias
tendency to judge the strength of arguments based on the plausibility of their conclusions rather than how strongly they support that conclusion
-you are biased to believe that the answer is rational if you agree with the conclusion
Conjunction Fallacy
what is more common, a person who wears Birkenstocks or a hippie who wears Birkenstocks
-the hippie group has to be smaller since the group includes it but people think its bigger
Gamblers Fallacy
ignores that each flip is independent, and all combinations are individual and have the same probability
Pareidolia
the tendency for the incorrect perception of a stimulus as an object, pattern, or meaning known to the observer
-seeing shapes in clouds, seeing faces in inanimate objects
The Clustering Illusion
the tendency to erroneously consider the inevitable “streaks” or “clusters” arising in small samples from random distributions to be non-randm
Illusory Correlation
the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between two variable where no such relationship exists
Primary and Recency Effects
we remember the beginnings and endings better than the other parts of things
Just World Phenomenon
if you think the world is ultimately just a place, you tend to look for reasons to blame victims of inexplicable injustices
Actor-Observer Bias
the tendency to explain the behaviour of others in terms of stable traits
-and to explain one’s actions in terms of reactions to the situation
Constructivism
children are active participants in their own development
Guided Participation
cognitive growth results from childrens involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled
Zone of proximal development
the difference between what a child can do alone from what they can do with help
Intersubjectivity
shared understanding among participants of an activity
Scaffolding
teaching style that matches the amount of assistance to the learners needs
Private speech
comments not directed to others but intended to help children regulate on their own speech
Inner Speech
thought, internalized private speech serving the same function
Amnesia
-leonard from Momentum sort of has transient global amnesia
-lacking short term memory
-can learn through procedural memory
Cognition
the manipulation of representations
-a representation is something that is used in place of the real thing
Short-term Memory
-temporary store
-some things from it end up becoming long-term memories
-can be there for a few days up to twenty days
Sensory Memory
-like a scratch pad (for vision) or recording tape (for hearing)
-can be overwritten with new things
-re-written every few seconds by new perceptions
Long-term Memory
-probably stored here forever
-might have trouble with retrieval
Learning
is the changing memory with the purpose of preparing a system for better action in the future
Habituation
diminution of a behavioural response with repeated simulation
-desensitization
Sensitization
when a behavioural response is amplified by repeated exposure to a stimulus
ex)at first you can barely feel a phone vibrating but eventually, you become sensitive to it
Classical conditioning
learning to associate two previously unrelated stimuli
-ex) dog learns that when you pick up the leash it means you’re going on a walk
operants conditioning
changing your behaviour according to reward and punishment
-four types: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment
positive reinforcement
introduciton of a desirable stimulus after behaviour to reinforce the behaviour
-strongest type
-makes it more likely to happen
Negative reinforcement
introduction to desirable stimulus in order to en an undesirable behaviour
-reinforces negative behaviour
ex)giving baby when they’re crying to make them stop
positive punishment
is when you add a consequence to an unwanted behaviour
ex)get burned by touching the hood of a car in the sun
Negative punishment
taking away something desirable in order to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour
ex) parents cut off allowance because you lied
Practice
involves doing something over and over and learning how to do it better
-uses reinforcement and punishment
Imprinting
time-sensitive learning in an animal that is insensitive to behavioural outcomes
ex)goose learning who its mother is happens 13-16 hours after hatching
Observational learning
learning that happens by observing others
-much of cultural learning is observational
testimony
when someone tells you something
-it can be read or heard aloud
ex)orcas are mammals
Mentorship
we learn from others and can teach others
-observation is a part of learning from others
ex)when you’re taught how to cook
Content bias
imitate the best idea
Prestige bias
imitate the most successful
Conformist bias
imitate the most common ways of doing things
Individual learning
when you learn things on your own
Psychoeducational assessment
completed by clinical psychologists to assess cognitive and academic skills
Metacognition
ability to consciously adn deliberately monitor and regulate ones knowledge, processes and cognitive and affective states
Extramission Theory
-rays of light emanating form the eye in combination with light in the world allows us to see
-now discredited
Intromission Theory
-visual perception is accomplished by rays of light reflected from objects into the eyes
-current theory
Neural Perception Network
bunch of neurons that network together and send information to each other
-spread activation to each other in proportion to stimulus
Case-based reasoning
an artifical intelligence paradigm that reasons about what to do
False Memory
when people mistake a suggestion by an interviewer as actual memories
Falsifiable
describe a situation when the theory doesn’t apply
Availability Cascade
once an idea gets repeated enough times people this its true
Hebb Theory
-synapses get more efficient with repeated use
-neurons that fire together wire together
-how the association is learned
Proximate Explanation of Cognitive Science
food: we eat because it satisfies our hunger and tastes good
sex: it gives us pleasure
Ultimate Explanation of Cognitive Science
food: we eat to stay alive
sex: procreate and carry on our genes
jealousy: help to protect us from losing partners/mates
Self-interest
i care about myself and my family
Friendship
i care for historical cooperation partners
Tribalism
i care about us, not them
The tragedy of the Commons
individual users, acting independently according to their own self-interest, behave contrary to the common good of al users by depleting or spoiling the shared resource through their collective action
Moral dumbfounding
occurs when people make a moral judgment in a particular situation, admit to being unable to adequately defend that judgment or decision with reasons or arguments still remain obstinately and steadfastly committed to the initial judgement
Moral dumbfounding
occurs when people make a moral judgment in a particular situation, admit to being unable to adequately defend that judgment or decision with reasons or arguments still remain obstinately and steadfastly committed to the initial judgement
Compellingness Theory
1 .we are interested in social status and our place in it
2. we are compelled to believe things we particularly hope or fear are true
3. we are attracted to patterns
4. we are drawn to achieve goals, solve puzzles, and resolve contradictions
5. our biological natures and psychological biases introduce a host of constraints on what we find compelling
Compellingness Theory
1 .we are interested in social status and our place in it
2. we are compelled to believe things we particularly hope or fear are true
3. we are attracted to patterns
4. we are drawn to achieve goals, solve puzzles, and resolve contradictions
5. our biological natures and psychological biases introduce a host of constraints on what we find compelling
Natural Selection
for natural reasons, some species reproduce more than others
Sexual selection
choice of mates
artificial selection
humans manipulate what species get to reproduce
Counterontology
we find things that belong to one category but have things from another
Person permanence
our belief that people still exist when we can no longer perceive them
enculturation
how you take in the culture around you throughout life
Strategic knowledge
the gods only care about things that well keep society together
Creature consciousness
some creature, or kinds of creatures have the ability to have mental-state consciousness
Mental-State Consciousness
whether some particular mental state is conscious or not
Automatization
as we get better at things, they become easier to do, and faster, and we can think about other things as we do it
Intuition
when we perceive, decide or believe something without having a notion of how the idea came about
Qualia
the objective experiences of certain things
Blindsight
ability to guess above chance aspects of visual stimuli in absence of perception
Hemisphere neglect
damage to the brian causes deficit of awareness of one side of space
Severed corpus callosum
split-brain or commissurotomy
Thought alienation
believing that the thought in your head is not your own
Linguistics
find a puzzle in language, figure it out then write on paper
Morphology
is the study of words, how they are formed and their relationship to other words in the same language
Intransitive
of a verb or a sense or use of a verb
Transitive
of a verb or a sense or use of a verb
Mentalese
a hypothetical mental system, resembling language, in which concepts can be pictured and combined without the use of words
Overimitation
when learning new skills chimps drop irrelevant factors, human children do not
egocentrism
difficulty seeing world from others pov
centration
can only focus on one thought
rationalism
-Coming up with reasons for why you did something after you already did it
