Cells & Tissues Flashcards
1
Q
What body system is the CNS part of?
A
Nervous
2
Q
What body system are appendicular muscles part of?
A
Muscular
3
Q
What is the primary function of the scrotum in the male reproductivity system?
A
Reproduction and thermal control tests
4
Q
What is the primary function of lymphatic fluid in the lymphatic system?
A
- Transport lipids (fats and fatty acids) from the gut
- Fluid from tissues
5
Q
What is the primary function of the axial muscles in the muscular system?
A
Provides support and positioning of the axial skeleton
6
Q
What body system is the hypothalamus/pituitary gland part of?
A
Endocrine
7
Q
What is the primary function of the vagina and external genitalia in the female reproductivity system?
A
- Lubrication
- Sperm reception
- Birth canal
8
Q
What body system are tendons and aponeuroses part of?
A
Muscular
9
Q
What are the organ structures in the lymphatic system?
A
- Lymphatic vessels
- Lymphatic fluid
- B cells and T cells
- Lymph nodes including tonsils
- Spleen
- Thymus
10
Q
What body system is the dermis part of?
A
Integumentary
11
Q
What is the primary function of the epidermis in the integumentary system?
A
- Protects deeper tissues and covers surfaces
- Vitamin D production
12
Q
What is the primary function of the veins in the CV system?
A
Conduits return blood from capillaries to heart
13
Q
What is the primary function of the small intestine in the digestive system?
A
- Digestive enzymes
- Buffers and hormones
- Absorbs nutrients
14
Q
What is the primary function of the bronchi in the respiratory system?
A
Conducts air between trachea and lungs
15
Q
What body system is the uterus part of?
A
Reproductive - female
16
Q
What is the primary function of the epididymis in the male reproductivity system?
A
Sperm maturation
17
Q
What does EPO stand for?
A
Erythropoietin
18
Q
What is the primary function of the blood in the CV system?
A
- Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Transports nutrients and hormones
- Removes waste
- Temperature regulation
- Defence against illness - immune cells
- Acid-base balance - -HCO3
19
Q
What is the primary function of the skeletal muscles in the muscular system?
A
- Provide skeletal movement
- Control entrances and exits to the digestive, respiratory and urinary systems
- Produces heat
- Supports the skeleton
- Protects soft tissue
20
Q
What features come under pulmonary circulation?
A
- Lymph nodes
- Lymphatic capillaries
- Pulmonary blood capillaries
21
Q
What are the major functions of the epithelial tissues?
A
- Protection
- Filtration
- Secretion
- Absorption
- Excretion
22
Q
What is the primary function of the urethra in the male reproductivity system?
A
Sperm to exterior
23
Q
What is the primary function of the lungs in the respiratory system?
A
- Air movement
- Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in alveoli
- Acid-base control
24
Q
What body system is the oesophagus part of?
A
Digestive
25
What is the primary function of the kidneys in the urinary system?
* Form and concentrate urine
* Regulate pH and ions
* Blood volume and blood pressure
* Endocrine function - assists in the production of blood cells and mineral balance
26
What body system is the brain part of?
Nervous
27
What body systems are the mammary glands part of?
1. Reproductive - female
2. Integumentary
28
What is it called if someone has too much GH from childhood?
* Gigantism
* A person grows up to be significantly taller than most people
29
What body systems is the thymus part of?
1. Endocrine
2. Lymphatic
30
What body system are the sebaceous glands part of?
Integumentary
31
What body system are the uterine tubes part of?
Reproductive - female
32
What body system is the oral cavity part of?
Digestive
33
Describe and give an example of the system structural level
* A system consists of related organs with a common function
* Eg, circulatory system
34
What is the primary function of the adrenal gland in the endocrine system?
* Water and mineral balance - eg, aldosterone
* Tissue metabolism - cortisol
* Cardiovascular and respiratory functions - adrenaline
35
What are three ways to achieve maximum aerobic capacity?
* Hemoglobin (hb) concentration and blood volume increases → hemoglobin mass increases → aerobic capacity increases
* Maximum heart rate and maximum stroke volume → maximum cardiac output → aerobic capacity increases
* Oxygen affinity of the blood and mitochondrial respiratory capacity → maximum oxygen extraction → aerobic capacity increases
36
What body system is the spleen part of?
Lymphatic
37
What body systems is the pharynx part of?
1. Respiratory
2. Digestive
38
What is the primary function of the arteries in the CV system?
Conduits blood from heart to capillaries
39
What body systems is the penis part of?
Reproductive - male
40
What is the primary function of the testes in the male reproductivity system?
Produces sperm and hormones
41
What is the primary function of the capillaries in the CV system?
Conduits diffusion between blood and interstitial fluids
42
What is the primary function of the special senses in the nervous system?
Sensory input to the brain relating to sight, hearing, smell, taste and equilibrium
43
What body system is the axial skeleton part of?
Skeletal
44
What is the primary function of the appendicular skeleton in the skeletal system?
* Provides internal support and positioning of the external limbs
* Supports and enables muscles to move the axial skeleton
45
What body system are axial muscles part of?
Muscular
46
What is the primary function of the oral cavity in the digestive system?
Breaks up food by working with the teeth and tongue
47
What are the organ structures in the muscular system?
1. Skeletal muscles
2. Axial muscles
3. Appendicular muscles
4. Tendons and aponeuroses
48
What is aerobic capacity?
The maximum oxygen uptake
49
What is the primary function of the pancreas in the endocrine system?
Glucose control - group of cells in the pancreas called islets of langerhans
50
What is the primary function of the salivary glands in the digestive system?
* Buffers and lubricant
* Releases enzymes that begin digestion
51
What are the major functions of the connective tissues?
* Protects and supports
* Binds organs together
* Stores energy
* Transport - blood
52
What body system are the gonads part of?
Endocrine
53
What body system are the bronchi part of?
Respiratory
54
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus/pituitary gland in the endocrine system?
* Control many other endocrine glands
* Regulates growth
* Fluid balance
55
What is the primary function of the large intestine and anus in the digestive system?
* Water removal
* Waste storage and removal
56
What is the primary function of yellow bone marrow in the skeletal system?
* Stores of fat cells
* Found in the medullary cavity of long bones
* Gains with age
* Turns from yellow to red after major bleeding
57
Describe and give an example of the chemical structural level
* The building blocks of the body
* Eg, atoms (smallest stable units of matter) join to form molecules (complex shapes and activities)
58
What is the primary function of the bladder in the urinary system?
Store urine prior to elimination
59
What is the primary function of the ovaries in the female reproductivity system?
Oocytes and hormones
60
What body system is the bladder part of?
Urinary
61
What features come under systemic circulation?
1. Arteries
2. Systemic blood capillaries
3. Blood plasma
4. Lymphatic capillaries
5. Afferent lymphatic vessels
6. Lymph nodes
7. Efferent lymphatic vessels
8. Lymphatic vessels
9. Subclavian vein
10. Lymphatic ducts
62
What body system is the small intestine part of?
Digestive
63
What is the primary function of the hypodermis in the integumentary system?
Fat stores - attaches skin to deeper layers
64
What body system is the gallbladder part of?
Digestive
65
What body systems is the prostate gland part of?
Reproductive - male
66
Describe muscle tissues
Contractile cells - muscle fibres
67
Describe connective tissues
* Cells in a matrix of fibres
* Includes bone and blood
68
What body system are the nails part of?
Integumentary
69
What is the primary function of the thymus in the lymphatic system?
Controls development and maintenance of the T cell lymphocytes
70
What are the organ structures in the urinary system?
1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Bladder
4. Urethra
71
What is the primary function of the sebaceous glands in the integumentary system?
Lubricates the hair shaft and epidermis - removes waste
72
What is the primary function of the brain in the nervous system?
* Complex integrative activities
* Controls voluntary and involuntary activities
73
What body system is the pineal gland part of?
Endocrine
74
What is the primary function of red bone marrow in the skeletal system?
* Red blood cell production - flat bones
* Pelvis, sternum, skull and ribs lose some of this with aging
75
What body system are bones, cartilage and joints part of?
Skeletal
76
What is the primary function of the stomach in the digestive system?
* Secretes acid
* Enzymes
* Hormones
77
What is the primary function of the spinal cord in the nervous system?
* Relays information to and from the brain
* Performs less complex integrative activities - reflex arc
78
What is the primary function of the parathyroid gland in the endocrine system?
Calcium levels
79
What body systems are the kidneys part of?
1. Endocrine
2. Urinary
80
Describe and give an example of the cellular structural level
* Basic structural and functional units of the body (≈200 types)
* Eg, cardiac muscle cells
81
Describe and give an example of the tissue structural level
* Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a particular function and have four major classes - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous
* Eg, cardiac muscle
82
What are the organ structures in the integumentary system?
1. Cutaneous membrane (skin) - epidermis and dermis
2. Hair follicles - hairs and sebaceous glands
3. Sweat glands
4. Nails
5. Sensory receptors
6. Hypodermis
83
What is the primary function of the seminal glands in the male reproductivity system?
Seminal fluid
84
What body system is the larynx part of?
Respiratory
85
What is the major function of the muscle tissues?
Movement
86
What is the major function of the nervous tissues?
Detects changes and generates nerve impulses
87
Describe and give an example of the organismal structural level
* All the parts of the body function together to constitute a living organism
* Eg, the individual/a person
88
What are the organ structures in the female reproductivity system?
1. Ovaries
2. Uterine tubes
3. Uterus
4. Vagina and external genitalia
5. Mammary glands
89
What body system are hairs part of?
Integumentary
90
What is the primary function of gonads in the endocrine system?
Sexual characteristics and reproduction
91
What is the primary function of the thyroid gland in the endocrine system?
* Metabolic rate
* Calcium levels
92
What is the primary function of lymphatic vessels in the lymphatic system?
Carry lymph fluid (water and protein) and lymphocytes from peripheral tissues to the veins of the CV system
93
What body systems are the pancreas part of?
1. Endocrine
2. Digestive
94
What body system is the parathyroid gland part of?
Endocrine
95
What is the primary function of the mammary glands in the female reproductivity system?
Nutrition for newborn - modified sweat gland
96
What is the primary function of the CNS in the nervous system?
* Control centre
* Short term control over other system
97
What are the organ structures in the endocrine system?
1. Pineal gland
2. Hypothalamus/pituitary gland
3. Thyroid gland
4. Parathyroid gland
5. Thymus
6. Adrenal glands
7. Kidneys - due to major hormone producing cells
8. Pancreas
9. Gonads
98
What is the primary function of the liver in the digestive system?
* Secretes bile
* Regulates nutrients in blood
99
What is the primary function of the urethra in the urinary system?
Conducts urine to exterior
100
What are the organ structures in the digestive system?
1. Oral cavity
2. Salivary glands
3. Pharynx
4. Oesophagus
5. Stomach
6. Small intestine
7. Liver
8. Gallbladder
9. Pancreas
10. Large intestine and anus
101
What is the primary function of lymph nodes in the lymphatic system?
* Monitor the composition of lymph
* Defence - engulf pathogens
* Stimulate - immune response (eg, lymphadenopathy)
102
What is the primary function of bones in the skeletal system?
Stores minerals
103
What is the primary function of the spleen in the lymphatic system?
* Monitor circulation of blood cells
* Engulfs pathogens
* Recycles red blood cells
* Stimulates immune response
* Like a large lymph node
104
What body system are bones part of?
Skeletal
105
What body system is the stomach part of?
Digestive
106
What body system is the vagina part of?
Reproductive - female
107
What body system are the salivary glands part of?
Digestive
108
What does EPO do and how does it do it?
* It signals for erythropoiesis in bone marrow
* The increased activity of a hemocytoblast (RBC stem cell) causes more RBC production which allows the blood to have a greater carrying capacity for oxygen
109
What body system is the epidermis part of?
Integumentary
110
What is the primary function of the PNS in the nervous system?
Links CNS with other systems and sense organs
111
Can organs belong to more than one body system?
Yes
112
What is the primary function of the sensory receptors in the integumentary system?
Detects sensations - touch, pressure, temperature and pain
113
Describe and give an example of the organ structural level
* Organs are structures with specific functions composed of two or more types of tissue
* Eg, heart
114
What is the primary function of the thymus in the endocrine system?
Maturation of lymphocytes
115
What is the primary function of the oesophagus in the digestive system?
Delivers food to the stomach
116
What are the organ structures in the skeletal system?
1. Bones, cartilage and joints
2. Axial skeleton - skull, vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, sternum, supporting cartilage, ligaments
3. Appendicular skeleton - limbs and supporting bones and ligaments
4. Bone
5. Bone marrow - red and yellow
117
What body systems are the testes part of?
1. Reproductive - male
2. Endocrine
118
What is the primary function of hairs in the integumentary system?
Sensation from innervation protection
119
What is histology?
The microscopic study of the tissues of the body
120
What is the primary function of the pharynx in the digestive system?
* Transports solid food and liquids to the oesophagus
* Chamber shared with the respiratory system
121
What is GH?
Growth hormone
122
What is the primary function of the heart in the CV system?
Propels blood and maintains blood pressure
123
What is the primary function of the gallbladder in the digestive system?
Concentrates bile
124
What body system are lymph nodes part of?
Lymphatic
125
What is the primary function of the ureters in the urinary system?
Conduct urine to bladder
126
What is it called if someone has too much GH from adulthood?
* Acromegaly
* Features start to grow but height remains the same
127
What body systems are the ovaries part of?
1. Reproductive - female
2. Endocrine
128
What body systems are the seminal glands part of?
Reproductive - male
129
What are the organ structures in the nervous system?
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
2. Brain
3. Spinal cord
4. Special senses - also considered a part of the PNS except the optic nerve which is CNS
5. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
130
What is IGF?
Insulin-like growth hormone
131
What is the primary function of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses in the respiratory system?
* Filter warm humidified air
* Detects smells
132
What body system is the PNS part of?
Nervous
133
What is the primary function of the external genitalia in the male reproductivity system?
Reproduction and thermal control tests
134
What body system is bone marrow part of?
Skeletal
135
What are the primary functions of bones, cartilage and joints in the skeletal system?
* Cartilage - all sorts of bone interfaces
* Types are hyaline (ribs) and fibro- (discs)
136
What body system is the thyroid gland part of?
Endocrine
137
What are the four basic types of tissues?
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
138
What are the organ structures in the male reproductivity system?
1. Testes
2. Accessory organs - epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate gland, urethra
3. External genitalia
4. Penis
5. Scrotum
139
Give an example of an organ belonging to multiple body systems
The pancreas belongs to the digestive and endocrine systems
140
What body system is the spinal cord part of?
Nervous
141
What is the primary function of the kidneys in the endocrine system?
* Red blood cell production
* Blood pressure increase
* Calcium levels
142
What body system are the adrenal glands part of?
Endocrine
143
What is the primary function of the uterus in the female reproductivity system?
Embryonic development
144
What are the organ structures in the cardiovascular system?
1. Heart
2. Blood vessels - arteries, capillaries and veins
3. Blood
145
What is EPO?
Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the interstitial fibroblasts in kidneys
146
What body systems is the scrotum part of?
Reproductive - male
147
What is the primary function of the uterine tubes in the female reproductivity system?
* Deliver oocyte
* Location of fertilisation
148
What are the organ structures of the respiratory system?
1. Nasal cavity and pasanasal sinuses
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
5. Bronchi
6. Lungs
149
What body system are the sweat glands part of?
Integumentary
150
What is the primary function of the pancreas in the digestive system?
* Digestive enzymes
* Buffers
* Endocrine cells
151
What is the primary function of the pharynx in the respiratory system?
Conducts air to larynx
152
Describe nervous tissues
Conducting nerve cells and supportive neuroglia
153
What is the primary function of nails in the integumentary system?
Stiffen and protects digits
154
What body systems is the epididymis part of?
Reproductive - male
155
What body system are the special senses part of?
Nervous
156
What is the primary function of B and T cells in the lymphatic system?
Cells that carry out immune response
157
Describe epithelial tissues
* Covers body surfaces, lines, hollow organs, tubes, cavities and ducts
* Forms glands
158
What body system is the appendicular skeleton part of?
Skeletal
159
What body system are lymphatic vessels part of?
Lymphatic
160
What body system are the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses part of?
Respiratory
161
What body system are B and T cells part of?
Lymphatic
162
What is the primary function of the prostate glands in the male reproductivity system?
Seminal fluid
163
What body system are the sensory receptors part of?
Integumentary
164
What is the primary function of the dermis in the integumentary system?
* Feeds the epidermis
* Strength
* Glands
165
What body systems are the external genitalia part of?
1. Reproductive - male
2. Reproductive - female
166
What is the primary function of the pineal gland in the endocrine system?
Can regulate day/night rhythms
167
What are the primary functions of tendons and aponeuroses in the muscular system?
* Translate contractile forces into tasks
* Tendons are the fibrous connections between muscle and bone
* Aponeuroses are the fibrous connections between muscle and muscle
168
What does the hypodermis do?
The hypodermis (subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia) separates the integument form from the fascia around deeper organs
169
What is the primary function of the appendicular muscles in the muscular system?
Support, move and brace limbs
170
What body system are the ureters part of?
Urinary
171
What body system is the hypodermis part of?
Integumentary
172
What is the primary function of the axial skeleton in the skeletal system?
* Protects the brain and spinal cord, sense organs and soft tissues of the thorax
* Supports body weight over lower limbs
173
How many levels of structural organisation are there that are relevant to understand the anatomy and physiology of the human body? What are they?
Six levels
1. Chemical/molecular
2. Cellular
3. Tissue
4. Organ
5. System
6. Organismal
174
How many body systems are there? What are they?
11
1. Integumentary
2. Muscular (skeletal muscular)
3. Skeletal
4. Nervous
5. Endocrine
6. Lymphatic and immune
7. Cardiovascular
8. Respiratory
9. Digestive
10. Urinary
11. Reproductive
175
What body system are skeletal muscles part of?
Muscular
176
What body systems is the ductus deferens part of?
Reproductive - male
177
What is the primary function of the penis in the male reproductivity system?
Reproduction and thermal control tests
178
What body system is lymphatic fluid part of?
Lymphatic
179
What is the primary function of the trachea in the respiratory system?
* Conducts air
* Cartilage keeps it open
180
What does the dermis consist of?
A papillary layer or areolar tissue and a reticular layer of dense irregular connective tissue
181
What body system are the lungs part of?
Respiratory
182
What is the primary function of the larynx in the respiratory system?
* Protects the opening to the trachea
* Contains vocal cords for vocalisation
183
What is the primary function of the ductus deferens in the male reproductivity system?
Sperm from epididymis
184
What body system is the trachea part of?
Respiratory
185
What body system is the urethra part of?
1. Urinary
2. Reproductive - male
186
What body system is the liver part of?
Digestive
187
What does the epidermis consist of?
A stratified squamous epithelium
188
What does epithelial tissue do?
* Covers body surfaces
* Lines hollow organs, cavities and ducts - inside the gut and abdominal cavity
* Forms the glands of the body
189
The cells of an epithelium are...
* Arranged in continuous sheets - single or multiple layers
* Held together by a variety of cell junctions including;
* Tight junctions
* Adherens junctions
* Gap junctions
* Desmosome
* Hemidesmosome
190
What are the key functions of epithelial tissues?
* Selective barriers limit or aid transfer - interface between the outside world and inside the body
* Secretory - onto a free surface
* Protective - especially from abrasion
191
What do the different surfaces of epithelial cells have?
Specialised functions
192
What are the different types of surfaces of epithelial cells?
1. Apical
2. Lateral
3. Basal
193
What is the function of apical surfaces?
To open to the outside world, or to the lumen inside the gut
194
What is the function of lateral surfaces?
To connect when two cells are adjacent to each other
195
What is the function of basal surfaces?
To attach to the basement membrane
196
When going from apical surfaces to basal surfaces, what is the order of the cell junctions?
1. Tight junction
2. Adherens junction
3. Gap junction
4. Desmosome
5. Hemidesmosome
197
What does the cystoskeleton consist of?
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments
198
What do the microfilaments in the cytoskeleton do?
1. Bundles beneath the cell membrane
2. Provides strength
3. Alter cell shape
4. Link cytoplasm to membrane
5. Tie cells together
6. Muscle contraction
7. Eg, actin
199
What do the intermediate filaments in the cytoskeleton do?
1. Provides strength
2. Move materials through cytoplasm
3. Eg, keratin
200
Where are tight junctions located?
Near the apical surface
201
Where can tight junctions be found?
Lots of them are found in the stomach, intestines and bladder
202
Describe tight junctions
1. Individual sealing strands - transmembrane
2. The more strands, the tighter the junction
3. Many proteins involved, but the two key ones are claudins and occludins
4. Ions and proteins can't pass easily down between cells as the cells are electrically tight - environment is very different so things from outside can't pass through
203
What do tight junctions do?
1. Join the cytoskeleton of adjacent cells - eg, via ZO-1 to actin
2. Keep cell polarity by preventing migration of protiens between apical and basal surfaces
204
Where are adherens junctions located?
Relatively close to the apical layer, but more basal located than tight junctions
205
What do adherens junctions have that help differentiate them from other cell junctions?
1. 'Belt desmosome, or adhesion belts (zonula adherens) in some epithelial cells - the belt encompasses the cell
2. Other cells are less ocntinuous and called 'adhesion plaques'
206
What do adherens junctions do?
Prevent cell separation from tension forces, like in contractions
207
Describe adherens junctions
1. Have a plaque layer of proteins on the inside of the cell to join actin to cadherins
2. Cadherins span the gap by going through the membrane and interacting with catenin
3. Catenins help link cadherins to actin
208
Where can desmosome junctions be found?
Most commin in skin epithelium, muscle cells and cardiac cells of the heart (to prevent pulling apart)
209
Describe the structure of desmosome junctions
1. Lateral wall - looks like a button
2. Has a 'plaque' - like adherens junctions
210
What do desmosome junctions do?
1. Resist shearing forces - eg, bind muscle cells
2. Cadherin spands the cap but links cell surface to keratin
3. Keratin spans from one desmosome to another on the other side of the cell - structural integrity
211
What makes up a gap junction?
Two hemichannels
212
How do gap junctions make a tunnel?
1. When it's first made there's no hole in the middle
2. Enters the cell membrane and moves around until it finds a hole in an adjacent cell
3. Two cells with holes dock together
4. The channel between these cells open and form a tunnel
5. Small molecules can transverse between cells - keep going from cell to cell through a series of tunnels
213
What do gap junctions do?
1. Allow direct connection between cells
2. Allow ≈1kDa molecules through - ATP, ions and calcium
214
Describe gap junctions
1. Six connexin protein molecules form a connexon or hemichannel
2. Conformation chains - shape changes for cells
215
Describe lateral junctions in profile
1. Gap junction (connexon) → adherens junction (actin filaments, cahderin) → tight junction (protein complex) → desmosome (keratin filaments, plasma membrane, cadherin)
2. Anchoring protein - actin filaments (adherens) and keratin filaments (desmosome)
3. Linking protein - cadherin (adherens and desmosome)
4. Occludin protein (and others) - protein complex (tight)
216
What do hemidesmosomes do?
1. Bind to intermediate filaments - looks like a button
2. Connect epithelia to basement membrane - secures cells, stops them from sliding around
3. Links cellular intermediate filament (keratin) to the basement membrane
217
Describe integrein linker proteins in hemidesmosome junctions
1. Integrin linker protein (instead of cadherin) binds to laminin in the basement membrane, and to keratin
2. Has to bind to another protein (laminin) as it's not binding to another junction
3. Has a way of linking keratin inside the cell, through the hemidesmosome and via integrin, into laminin in the BM
218
What are the lateral junctions?
1. Tight junction
2. Adherens junction
3. Gap junction
4. Desmosome
219
Which junction is basal, not lateral?
Hemidesmosome
220
What is the basement membrane?
The basement membrane is like a platform that all epithelial cells can sit on and anchor themselves to
221
What are the two components of the basement membrane?
1. Basal lamina
2. Reticular lamina
222
Decribe the basal lamina
1. Secreted by epithelial cells
2. Contains collagen, laminin, other proteoglycans, glycoproteins, etc
223
Describe the reticular lamina
1. Produced by the cells of the underlying connective tissue - fibroblasts
2. Contains fibrous proteins such as fibronectin, collagen, etc
224
Where is the basement membrane located?
Between the epithelium and connective tissue
225
Do epithelia contain nerves or blood vessels?
1. They contain nerves but not blood vessels
2. Nerve endings penetrate the BM and can enter in between the cells of the epithelium
3. Are avascular
226
How and where does nutrient and waste exchange occur in the BM?
1. By diffusion from vessels in the connective tissue
2. Nutrients can diffuse through the BM and therefore be accessible to epithelial cells sitting on top of them
3. Waste material goes the opposite way
227
What are the functions of the basement membrane?
1. Supports the overlying epithelium
2. Provides a surface along which epithelial cells migrate during growth and wound healing
3. Acts as a physical barrier
4. Participates in the filtration of substances in the kidney
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Describe how the BM helps epithelial cells migrate for growth and wound healing
1. When we cut ourselves and create a gap, the epithelium and BM it sits on have been divided - especially if the cut is deep enough to see fat underneath
2. Have to reconstiture the BM
3. Fibroblasts and other cells come into the wound and start laying down the BM so epithelial cells can grow around and cover the gap
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What is the relationship between the BM and melanoma?
1. The BM can act as a barrier to invasion by malignant melanoma
2. Once the barrier has been breached, the chances of metastasis (spreading) occurring increases
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What are the ABCD's of melanoma warning signs?
1. Asymmetry - one half of a mole doesn't match the other
2. Border irregularity - edges are ragged, notched or blurred
3. Colour - mix of brown, black, red, white or blue
4. Diameter - greater than 6mm
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What are the two types of epithelial tissue?
1. Covering and lining epithelia
2. Glandular epithelia
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What do covering and lining epithelia do?
1. Form the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs
2. Form the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts and body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems
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What do glandular epithelia do?
1. Constitute the secretory portion of glands
2. Exocrine - secrete onto external surfaces and into passages (ducts)
3. Endocrine - hormones or precursors into interstitial fluid
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Fill in the descriptions for the flow chart
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How are covering and lining epithelia classified?
According to;
1. The arragement of cells in layers
2. The shapes of the cells
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What are the possible arragements for covering and lining epithelia?
1. Simple
2. Stratified
3. Pseudostratified
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Describe the arrangement of simple covering and lining epithelia
1. Single layer
2. Secretion
3. Absorption
4. Filtration
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Describe the arrangement of stratified covering and lining epithelia
1. Two or more layers
2. Protective
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Describe the arrangement of pseudostratified covering and lining epithelia
1. Appears to have multiple layers - judged by positions of the nuclei
2. Not all cells reach the apical surface
3. All cells are in contact with the BM - actually a simple epithelium (secretion)
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What are the possible shapes for covering and lining epithelia?
1. Squamous
2. Cuboidal
3. Columnar
4. Transitional
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Describe the squamous shape in covering and lining epithelia
1. Flat and thin
2. Helps allow passage by diffusion
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Describe the cuboidal shape in covering and lining epithelia
1. About as tall as they are wide
2. Secretion
3. Absorption
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Describe the columnar shape in covering and lining epithelia
1. More tall than wide
2. Secretion
3. Absorption
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Describe the transitional shape in covering and lining epithelia
1. A stratified epithelium wgere cells can change shape from cuboidal to flat, depending on the organ shape
2. Allows stretch - appearance of the lining changes dramatically depending on how much tension is in the wall, can go from more stratified to cuboidal but when relaxed they have a scalloped appearance
3. Found in the urinary bladder
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What are the types of simple covering and lining epithelia?
1. Simple squamos
2. SImple cuboidal
3. Simple columnar - ciliated and non ciliated
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What are the types of stratified covering and lining epithelia?
1. Stratified squamous - keratinised and non keratinised
2. Stratified cuboidal
3. Stratified columnar
4. Transitional
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What is the type of pseudostratified covering and lining epithelium?
Pseudostratified columnar - ciliated or non ciliated
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What are the features of simple squamous epithelium?
1. Most delicate epithelium
2. Where there is;
1. Filtration - kidneys
2. Diffusion - lungs
3. Secretion - where slipper sufaces are needed (one cell slipping onto another), eg, outer layer of serous membrane
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What is the appearance of simple squamous epithelium?
1. Thin, flat and somewhat irregular - like a jigsaw
2. Cells are like fried eggs or paving stones
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What are the specialised types of simple squamous epithelium?
1. Mesothelium
2. Endothelium
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Where are the mesothelium and endothelium in simple squamous epithelium found?
1. Mesothelium - lines pericardial (heart), pleural (lungs) and peritoneal (abdomen) cavities (a serous membrane (serosa) is in the lining of the body cavity and viscera)
2. Endothelium - lines the inside of the heart, blood and lymphatic vessels
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Where are simple squamous epthelium located?
In the Bowman's capsule;
1. Kidneys
2. Lines cardiovascular and lymphatic systems
3. Inside the eyes
4. Alveoli of lungs
5. Visceral cavity linings
6. Inside blood vessels
7. Inside heart
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What are the features of simple cuboidal epithelium?
Found where there is secretion and absorption
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What is the appearance of simple cuboidal epithelium?
1. Cuboidal or hexagonal boxes
2. The distance between adjacent nuclei is approximately the height of the epithelium
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Where are simple cuboidal epithelium located?
1. Pancreas ducts
2. Parts of the kidney tubules
3. Smaller ducts of many glands
4. Secretory chambers of thyroid
5. Anterior surface of lens
6. Pigmented epithelium at posterior of retina
7. Secretory part of some glands, like thyroid
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What is a membrane modification? Give two examples
1. Changes or adaptations that have occurred in the membrane of different cells
2. Eg, microvilli and cilia
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What do microvilli do?
Increase surface area - eg, in the intestinal wall
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What do cilia do?
1. Move material along the surface of the cell - eg, moving material from inside the lungs and allowing to cough up flem when sick
2. Cilia are motile
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What are the features of simple columnar epithelium?
1. More cytoplasm, so more organelles
2. Often more metabolically active - clue from the elongated shape
3. Come in two major subtypes - non ciliated and ciliated
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What is the appearance of simple columnar epithelium?
1. Rectangular
2. Often hexagonal, but taller and more slender than cuboidal
3. Nuclei often elongated and near the base of the cell
4. Height of the cell is several times the distance between adjacent nuclei
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What are the specialised subtypes of simple columar epithlium?
Can have cilia or microvilli
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What are the features of non ciliated simple columnar epithelium?
1. Single layer
2. Microvilli on apical surface
3. Have goblet cells interspersed - secrete mucus material onto the surface of the intestine so food can slide down
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Describe the microvilli in non ciliated simple columnar epithelium
1. Non-motile cytoplasmic projections
2. Increases surface area for absorption
3. Brush border - microvilli covered surface in simple cuboidal and columnar epithelium
4. Eg, found in small intestine
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Where can non ciliated simple columnar epithelium be located?
1. Lines gut mucosa from stomach to anus
2. Ducts of many glands
3. Gallbladder
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What is the function of simple columnar epithelium?
1. Secretion and lubrication - mucus goblet cells
2. Absorption
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What are goblet cells?
1. A modified columnar cell
2. Responsible for secretion and lubrication of mucus in the lower digestive tract (intestines)
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What are the features of ciliated simple columnar epithelium?
1. Single layer
2. Have hoblet cells
3. Moves materials
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Where can ciliated simple columnar epithelium be located?
1. Some bronchioles - can move materials that come into the lungs into the trachea, through the bronchi
2. Uterine fallopian tubes - can 'sweep' the egg along
3. Sinuses
4. Central canal of the spinal cord
5. Ventricles of the brain
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What is the function of ciliated simple columnar epithelium?
Synchronous movement assits motility of mucus and foreighn objects or oocytes
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What are the features of stratified squamous epithelium?
1. Located where mechanical or chemical stresses are severe
2. All forms protect against microbes
3. In some pleaces where mechanical stress and dehydration are major issues, apical cells are packed with keratin - makes the surface tough and waterproof
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What is the appearance of stratified squamous epithelium?
1. Cells form layers like plywood or pancakes in upper layers
2. Lower layers may be cuboidal or columnar
3. Cells furthest from nutrition are thinner and less active
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What are the specialised cells in stratified squamous epithelium?
1. Keratinised
2. Non keratinised
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Where can stratified squamous epithelium be located?
1. Keratinised - skin
2. Non keratinised - mouth, throat, tongue, oesophagus, anus and vagina
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What is the function of non keratinised stratified squamous epithelium?
1. Protection from abrasion
2. Defence from microbes
3. Requires secretions from glands
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What are the features of pseudostratified columar epithelium?
1. All cells contact the BM but not all reach the apical surface of the tissue
2. Actually a simple epithelium
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What is the apperance of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
1. Nuclei at all different levels
2. Appears to have several layers, but only has one
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What are the specialised subtypes of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
1. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
2. Pseudostratified non ciliated columnar epithelium
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Describe pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
1. Cilia on some cells
2. Secrete mucus - goblet cells
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Describe pseudostratified non ciliated columnar epithelium
1. No cilia
2. Lack goblet cells
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Where can pseudostratified columnar epithelium be located?
1. Ciliated - most of the upper airways
2. Non ciliated - larger ducts of glands, epididymis and parts of the male urethra
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What is the function of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
1. Ciliated - secrete and move mucus
2. Non ciliated - absorption and protection
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Do stratified epithelia have cilia?
Not for this course
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What are some key examples of simple squamous epithelia?
1. Endothelium lining blood vessels
2. Mesothelium visceral cavity lining
3. In Bowman's capsule - inside eyes and alveoli
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What are some key examples of simple cuboidal epithelia?
1. Pancreas ducts
2. Parts of kidney ducts
3. Secretory chambers of thyroid
4. Lens surface
5. Pigmented epithelium at posterior of retina
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What are some key examples of simple columnar epithelia?
Non ciliated;
1. GI tract from stomach to anus
2. Ducts of many glands
3. Gallbladder
Ciliated;
1. Parts of upper respiratory tract
2. Some bronchioles
3. Fallopian tubes
4. Sinuses
5. Central canal of spinal cord
6. Ventricles of the brain
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What are some key examples of stratified squamous epithelia?
1. Keratinised - skin epithelium
2. Non keratinised - lining of mouth, tongue, oesophagus, anus and vagina
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What are some key examples of stratified cuboidal epithelia?
1. Ducts of adult sweat glands
2. Oesophagul glands
3. Male urethra
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What are some key examples of stratified columnar epithelia?
1. Parts of urethra
2. Some large gland ducts - like oesophageal glands
3. Anal muscosal membrane
4. Part of a conjunctiva of the eye
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What are some key examples of stratified transitional epithelia?
1. Bladder
2. Some parts of the ureter and urethra
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What are some key examples of pseudostratified columnar epitheli?
1. Ciliated - parts of the upper respiratory tract
2. Non ciliated - larger ducts
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Describe glandular epithelia
1. Glands consist of a single cell or group of cells that secrete substances into ducts, onto a surface or into blood
2. Classified according to where they secrete their substance
3. Function is always secretion
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What are the classification of glandular epithelia?
1. Endocrine gland
2. Exocrine gland
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What is the secretion pathway of endocrine glands?
Secretes directly into the blood, usually via transferring instersititial fluid
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What are examples of endocrine glands?
1. Pituitary
2. Pineal
3. Thyroid
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What is the secretion pathway of exocrine glands?
Secretes into ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium
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What are examples of exocrine glands?
1. Sweat and salivary glands
2. Oil glands
3. Wax glands
4. Pancreas
Generally local effects
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Can glandular organs be endocrine and exocrine?
Yes, organs like the pancreas are mixed - secrete into ducts and the blood
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Describe single cell exocrine glandular epithelia
1. In epithelia that have independent, scattered gland cells, the individual secretory cells are called mucous cells, and they secrete mucin
2. The apical cytoplasm is filled with large secretory vesicles that look clear or foamy in a light micrograph
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What are the three characteristics used to describe the structure of multicellular glands?
1. Structure of the duct
2. Structure of the secretory area
3. Relationship between the two
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What is the difference between single and branched/multicellular glands?
1. Simple - has a single duct that does not divide on its way to the gland cells
2. Branched - several secretory areas (tubular or acinar) share a duct
Branched refers to the glandular area and not the duct
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What are tubular glands?
1. Glands whose glandular cells form tubes are tubular
2. The tubes may be straight or coiled
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What are the types of tubular glands?
1. Simple tubular - intestinal glands
2. Simple coiled tubular - merocrine sweat glands
3. Simple branched tubular - gastric glands and mucous glands of the oesophagus, tongue and duodenum
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