Cells and Inflammation

Question 1

What is cancer?

Answer 1

Cancer refers to over 200 different diseases characterized by mutated DNA, uncontrolled cellular growth, and the potential to be life-threatening.

Question 2

How do genetic mutations contribute to cancer?

Answer 2

Genetic mutations can alter cell division by affecting proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes, leading to uncontrolled growth and loss of normal cellular function.

Question 3

What is a carcinogen?

Answer 3

A carcinogen is any substance, organism, or physical agent that can cause cancer by inducing mutations in DNA.

Question 4

What is the role of tumour suppressor genes?

Answer 4

Tumor suppressor genes act as brakes on cell division, helping to prevent uncontrolled growth and the development of tumors.

Question 5

Define apoptosis in cancer.

Answer 5

Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death. In cancer, cells often lose the ability to undergo apoptosis, leading to increased survival of mutated cells.

Question 6

What is angiogenesis in cancer?

Answer 6

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels. In cancer, it is triggered by factors like Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and helps supply tumors with nutrients and oxygen, enabling their growth.

Question 7

What is metastasis?

Answer 7

Metastasis is the spread of cancer cells from the primary site to distant sites in the body, often through the lymphatic or blood systems.

Question 8

What is the TNM staging system in cancer?

Answer 8

The TNM classification system for staging cancer includes:

• T (Tumor): Size and extent of the primary tumour.
• N (Node): Extent of lymph node involvement.
• M (Metastasis): Presence of distant metastasis.

Question 9

What is the significance of p53 in cancer?

Answer 9

p53 is known as the “Guardian of the Genome.” It is crucial in preventing cancer by regulating cell cycle progression and promoting apoptosis when DNA is damaged.

Question 10

What is chromothripsis?

Answer 10

Chromothripsis is a phenomenon where chromosomes undergo massive fragmentation, leading to complex genetic rearrangements often seen in cancer cells.

Question 11

How do mutations affect cell behavior in cancer?

Answer 11

Mutations can alter cell structure, function, and behaviour, leading to uncontrolled cell division, apoptosis resistance, and normal growth control loss.

Question 12

What are some common causes of DNA mutations?

Answer 12

Causes include carcinogenic agents such as ionizing radiation, UV radiation, asbestos, tobacco, obesity, and certain infections or chemicals.

Question 13

What is the ‘seed and soil’ theory in metastasis?

Answer 13

The ‘seed and soil’ theory suggests that cancer cells (seeds) can only grow in specific environments (soil) within distant organs, explaining why some cancers metastasize more readily than others.

Question 14

What is the role of telomerase in cancer?

Answer 14

Telomerase prevents the shortening of telomeres, allowing cancer cells to maintain their ability to divide and proliferate without ageing.

Question 15

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumours?

Answer 15

Benign tumours are non-cancerous and do not spread, while malignant ones are cancerous and can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to other body parts.

Question 16

What is the importance of tumour grading?

Answer 16

Tumour grading assesses how much cancer cells differ from normal cells, with lower grades indicating less aggression and higher grades indicating more aggressive behaviour.

Question 17

What are pyrogens?

Answer 17

Pyrogens are substances that induce fever by raising the body’s set-point temperature in the hypothalamus, typically in response to infection or inflammation.

Question 18

What are eosinophils?

Answer 18

Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell involved in combating parasitic infections and in allergic reactions. They release toxic proteins and cytokines that help manage inflammation.

Question 19

What are immunoglobulins?

Answer 19

Immunoglobulins (Ig), also known as antibodies, are glycoproteins produced by B-lymphocytes that bind to antigens, neutralizing pathogens or marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

Question 20

What are antigens?

Answer 20

Antigens are foreign molecules, often proteins or polysaccharides, that trigger an immune response when detected by the immune system. They can come from pathogens, allergens, or transplanted tissues.

Question 21

What are antibodies?

Answer 21

Antibodies are proteins produced by B-lymphocytes that specifically bind to and neutralize antigens, such as pathogens, to help prevent infections or assist in their removal.

Question 22

What is histamine?

Answer 22

Histamine is a chemical released by mast cells and basophils during allergic reactions and inflammation. It causes vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and contributes to symptoms like swelling, redness, and itching.

Question 23

What is lysozyme?

Answer 23

Lysozyme is an enzyme found in various body fluids (like saliva, tears, and mucus) that breaks down bacterial cell walls, helping to defend against infections.

Question 24

What is a macrophage?

Answer 24

Macrophages are large white blood cells that engulf and digest pathogens, dead cells, and debris. They also play a key role in initiating and regulating the immune response by presenting antigens to T-cells.

Question 25

What are erythrocytes?

Answer 25

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and returning carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation.

Question 26

What are T-lymphocytes?

Answer 26

T-lymphocytes (T-cells) are a type of white blood cell involved in the adaptive immune response. They directly attack infected cells, cancer cells, and help regulate other immune cells.

Question 27

What are B-lymphocytes?

Answer 27

B-lymphocytes (B-cells) are a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies that neutralize or mark antigens (like pathogens) for destruction.

Question 28

What is the body’s first line of defence against infection?

Answer 28

Physical barriers like skin, mucous membranes, acidic pH in the stomach, lysozymes in saliva and tears, ear wax, and cilia in the respiratory tract.

Question 29

What is the difference between non-specific and specific immune responses?

Answer 29

Non-specific responses (inflammatory response) protect the body from injury and infection. Specific (adaptive) immune responses target specific microorganisms and involve memory for faster future responses.

Question 30

What are the key steps involved in the inflammatory response?

Answer 30

Circulation slows, cell damage releases cytokines, blood vessels respond with chemotaxis, vasodilation, and diapedesis, leading to phagocytosis by white blood cells (neutrophils).

Question 31

What are some cytokines involved in the inflammatory process?

Answer 31

Histamine, Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin-1 (IL-1), Interferons, Leukotrienes, Prostaglandins, Kinins (e.g., bradykinin).

Question 32

What are the effects of inflammation?

Answer 32

Vasodilation (increased blood flow), swelling, pain (due to mediators like prostaglandins and bradykinin), and fever (due to interleukin-1, IL-1).

Question 33

What are the two types of immunity in the adaptive immune response?

Answer 33

Humoral immunity (produces antibodies through B cells) and cell-mediated immunity (involves T cells to attack infected cells).

Question 34

What is the role of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)?

Answer 34

MHC helps T cells recognize cells in the body (self-recognition) and prevents immune response to the body’s own cells (self-tolerance). Loss of self-tolerance can lead to autoimmune diseases.

Question 35

What happens in organ transplants regarding immunity?

Answer 35

Organ transplants can be rejected unless the immune system is suppressed to prevent the body’s immune response against the foreign tissue.

Question 36

What is the inflammatory response in asthma?

Answer 36

In asthma, inflammation occurs in the airways, causing constriction and difficulty breathing due to immune responses triggered by allergens.

Question 37

How does sepsis affect the body?

Answer 37

Sepsis is a severe inflammatory response to infection that can lead to widespread tissue damage, organ failure, and potentially death if untreated.

Question 38

What is the Sepsis Six and why are they important?

Answer 38

The Sepsis Six is a set of six key interventions that should be initiated within one hour of identifying a patient with suspected sepsis. These steps aim to reduce mortality and improve patient outcomes:

Question 39

What are the first 3 of the sepsis six steps?

Answer 39

• Administer High-Flow Oxygen = Ensure oxygen saturation above 94% to support respiratory function.
• Take Blood Cultures and Consider Source Control = Obtain blood cultures and assess the source of infection for potential surgical or drainage procedures.
  Administer Empiric Intravenous
• Antibiotics = Start broad-spectrum antibiotics to combat the infection, adjusting based on culture results.

Question 40

What are the last 3 of the sepsis six steps?

Answer 40

• Measure Serial Serum Lactates = Monitor lactate levels to assess tissue perfusion and guide further treatment.
• Start Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation = Administer fluids to restore circulatory volume and improve tissue oxygenation.
• Commence Accurate Urine Output Measurement = Monitor urine output as an indicator of kidney function and response to treatment.