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cells and genes > cells and genes final > Flashcards

cells and genes final Flashcards

1
Q
  • Define central dogma
A

-central dogma defines a central idea that all living things use DNA to encode RNA to encode protein

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2
Q

membrane

A

defines cell (structure of the cell, outline)

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3
Q

nucleus

A

largest organelle, where DNA replication, transcription, and RNA processing take place

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4
Q

cytoskeleton

A

determines cell shape, organizes cell contents, contributes to cell movement

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5
Q

mitochondria

A

synthesizes energy, powerhouse of the cell

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6
Q

chloroplast

A

large green organelles only found in plant cells, perform photosynthesis. Reproduce by dividing into 2

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7
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

site of protein synthesis, rough ER:ribosomes bound, smooth ER:no ribosomes

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8
Q

Ribosome

A

molecular machines that make protein, complexes of RNA and protein, critical to protein formation

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9
Q

golgi apparatus

A

modifies translated proteins, stacks of flattened membrane enclosed sacs

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10
Q

lysosomes

A

membrane bound, break down macromolecules, responds against foreign substances

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11
Q

peroxisomes

A

membrane enclosed, isolate reactions where hydrogen peroxide is made

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12
Q

small vesicles

A

membranes form involved in transport of materials between organelles, exchange materials between ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and the outside

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13
Q

Eukaryotic

A

has a nucleus and organelles enclosed in a cell membrane

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14
Q

prokaryotic

A

don’t have a membrane bound nucleus or organelles

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15
Q

light microscope

A

used to make small things appear bigger by using light

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16
Q

electron microscope

A

uses beam of electrons rather than light

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17
Q

fluorescent microscope

A

dyes used to image only labeled portions of specimens

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18
Q

confocal microscope

A

high resolution version of fluorescent microscopy

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19
Q
  • Define the term model organism and provide 4 general traits that may make for a good
    model organism
A

-a species that offers an advantage to study a process, behavior, or disease
Characteristics:high reproductive rate, large population, behaviorally interesting, morphology

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20
Q

describe atoms generally and chemically

A

Atoms make molecules using covalent bonds and molecules can combine to form cells that make up tissues which make up organs. Atoms contain protons and neutrons and make covalent bonds which are super strong

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21
Q

protein

A

monomer=amino acid, they form polypeptide chains, polymer=protein, helps with cell shape and organization
-proteins control cell division and flow of materials and information in and out of the cell

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22
Q

carbohydrates

A

monomer=monosaccharides, they produce and store energy, polymer=polysaccharide, they provide structural support and energy storage
-carbohydrates act as an energy source and help control blood glucose and metabolism

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23
Q

lipids

A

monomer=fatty acid, they influence cell and tissue metabolism, polymer=nothing
-lipids help move and store energy and absorb vitamins

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24
Q

nucleic acids

A

monomer=nucleotides,they carry out metabolic functions, polymer=nucleic acids, DNA is genetic instructions
-nucleic acids carry genetic information which is read in cells to make RNA and proteins

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25
Q

primary

A

sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds (long string of amino acids)

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26
Q

secondary

A

alpha helix or beta sheet formed by hydrogen bonds (helices are swirly, beta sheets are folded squares)

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27
Q

tertiary

A

folding and coiling due to interactions among R groups and between R groups and surrounding water (helices and beta sheets intertwine together)

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28
Q

quaternary

A

association of two or more polypeptide chains with each other (the structure of helices and beta sheets joins together with other structures of helices and beta sheets)

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29
Q
  • Describe how both shape and R-group characteristics together influence protein function
A

-The nature of the R groups found in the amino acids involved can counteract the formation of the hydrogen bonds which creates the 3D tertiary structure of protein

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30
Q

phosphorylation

A

chemical process of adding a phosphate group to an organic compound

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31
Q

kinase

A

group of enzymes which add phosphate

32
Q

phosphatase

A

enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a protein

33
Q
  • Describe the 4 characteristics of enzymes (PRES)
A

-Proteins- Reusable- lower activation Energy- Selective/Specific

34
Q

Chromosome

A

has many genes, many chromosomes in a cell, they are dynamic

35
Q

Histone

A

family of proteins which help to package, half of total mass of chromosome, tend to be positively charged

36
Q

nucleosome

A

DNA wound around a core of histone proteins, beads on a string, 8 histone protein octamer

37
Q

Replication origin

A

area of DNA where replication process begins

38
Q

Centromere

A

region of DNA towards center of chromosome, used during replication to separate pairs

39
Q

Telomere

A

area of repetitive DNA at the end of chromosome, corrects for issue faced during replication

40
Q

Junk DNA

A

genomic DNA that does not encode protein, unknown function, 99% to 20% of human DNA

41
Q
  • Describe the relationship between DNA, chromosomes, genes, and the genome
A

If the DNA code is a set of instructions that’s carefully organized into paragraphs (genes) and chapters (chromosomes), then the entire manual from start to finish would be the genome.

42
Q
  • Describe the Meselson and Stahl experiment, including general methods and results, actual and potential
A

1.Grew bacteria in 14N or 15N media
2.spun bacteria in density gradient
3.heavier bands moved to the bottom
They compared bands
Experiment demonstrated that DNA replicated semi-conservatively

43
Q
  • Generally describe the process of DNA replication using the terms
    Replication origin, replication fork, lagging strand, leading strand, Okazaki fragments
A

Replication origin is in the middle, initiator proteins help open double stranded helix, each replication origin results in 2 replication forks. Lagging strand= DNA strand that is made discontinuously, leading strand= DNA strand that is being made continuously. Okasaki fragments=term for small chunks of DNA made on the lagging strand

44
Q

Bacterial transcription

A

RNA polymerase scans the DNA until it finds the promoter region. Sigma factor recognizes promoter from outside of helix, sigma factor dissociates, transcription proceeds until terminator sequence is rerached, both polymerase and RNA molecule are released, sigma factor re-associates with RNA polymerase

45
Q

Eukaryotic transcription

A

3 RNA polymerases, transcription factors replace sigma factor, transcription factor binds to TATA box

46
Q

mRNA

A

transfers genetic information from genes to ribosomes to synthesize proteins

47
Q

tRNA

A

transfers amino acids to mRNA for protein synthesis

48
Q

rRNA

A

provides structural framework for ribosomes

49
Q
  • Define RNA processing and describe ways mRNA is processed or regulated)
A

RNA processing=making changes to the RNA molecule that will affect the final protein product, RNA capping=special nucleotide added to 5’ end of mRNA, polyadenylation=series of adenine added to 3’ end of mRNA, RNA splicing=removal of portions of mRNA, mRNA degradation=one mRNA can be used to make many proteins

50
Q

RNA capping

A

special nucleotide added to 5’ end of mRNA

51
Q

polyadenylation

A

series of adenine added to 3’ end of mRNA

52
Q
  • Describe the general steps in protein translation, including how it is initiated and terminated: A site, P site, E site, small subunit, large subunit, tRNA, start codon, initiator tRNA, release factor
A
  1. tRNA carrying the next amino acid
    binds to A-site on ribosome
  2. C-terminus of amino acid in P-site is
    uncoupled from tRNA and joined to
    amino acid in A-site
  3. Large subunit moves down the mRNA
    * Moving P site tRNA into E
    * Moving A site tRNA into P
  4. Small subunit moves down the mRNA
    * tRNA in E site is ejected
    * Cycle starts over again
53
Q

DNA polymerase

A

replication (DNA to DNA), requires DNA template and primer

54
Q

RNA polymerase

A

transcription (DNA to RNA), does not require a primer but requires transcription factors to bind to promoter and enhancer regions

55
Q

Ribosome

A

translation (RNA to protein), translates encoded messages from mRNA to synthesize proteins from amino acids

56
Q
  • Describe how the structure of phospholipids and how their properties lead to bi-layer formation and the ability to self-heal a break
A

the hydrophilic heads face the water at each surface of the bilayer, and the hydrophobic tails are shielded from the water in the interior. They spontaneously form bilayer when faced with water and self healing tears in the the sheet expose non-polar region

For a protein to embed in a membrane, it needs a covalent attachment of a lipid

Membrane domains are functionally specialized regions of a membrane created by restricting particular proteins to an area

57
Q

Diffusion

A

solution consists of a solvent and solute, molecules in solution are always in motion, passive (no energy used)

58
Q

Osmosis

A

water slowly crossing the membrane, can cross more rapidly through membrane channels (aquaporins), net movement of water= from side with more water (more dilute), to the side with less water less dilute)

59
Q

Carrier mediated transport

A

molecules that are large or polar cannot diffuse across membrane, carrier proteins within plasma membrane move these molecules across, require formation of non-covalent bonds, facilitated diffusion (passive, high to low, requires carrier-mediated proteins, transport proteins always exist in plasma membrane), active transport (low to high, requires ATP, coupled transporters, ATP-driven pumps, light driven pumps

60
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

determines the direction that ions will flow through an open ion channel, has two components: concentration gradient=difference in the amount of one molecule on either side of the membrane, and electrical gradient=difference in total charge on either side of the membrane. Gated ion channels are not continuously open, specific stimulus triggers to open, open briefly and then close

61
Q
  • Describe how proteins enter the nucleus, using (and defining) the following terms:
    Nuclear pore, nuclear localization signal, nuclear import receptor
A

Nuclear pore:large, elaborate complex of about 30 proteins, anything entering or leaving must go through a nuclear pore
Nuclear localization signal:NLS, 1 or 2 short sequences of amino acids containing several positively charged, such as lysine or arginine
Nuclear import receptors:recognize NLS, direct protein to pore by interacting with tentacle-like fibrils on rim

62
Q
  • Describe the process in which soluble proteins are brought into the ER using (and defining)
    the following terms:
    Translocation channel, ribosome, ER localization signal, signal recognition particle (SRP), SRP
    receptor, chaperone proteins
A

Ribosomes start to translate in cytosol and move to ER membrane after signal sequence is recognized. SRP binds growing peptide signal sequence and ribosome. SRP receptor reognizes SRP. release SRP and guides threads forming protein into ER through protein translocator tunnels. Signal sequence opens translocation tunnel. Proteins are unfolded to cross. C-terminus passes through the membrane and protein is released into lumen if soluble. Chaperone proteins inside the organelle help pull the protein across and refold it when its inside

63
Q
  • Describe the process of formation of a clathrin-coated vesicles, using (and defining) the
    following terms: Cargo receptors, adaptins, clathrin, and dynamin
A

Cargo receptors bring cargo molecules to the cargo receptors connected to the adaptins. The dynamin brings up the bottom part to help form the ball shape of the coated vesicle(pinches it off). While this happens, a clathrin coat is created and forms the ball fully

64
Q
  • Describe how Rab proteins and SNARE proteins determine and cause vesicle fusion with the
    target membrane
A

Rab proteins: on surface of vesicle and recognized by tethering proteins on cytosolic surface of target membrane

SNARE: transmembrane proteins after tethering, captures vesicle
-v-SNARES interact with complementary t-SNARES on target membrane docking the vesicles

65
Q
  • Describe the 3 potential fates of substance undergoing endocytosis
A

1.most return back to same PM that they came from
2.some go to lysosome to be degraded
3.some go to different domain of PM
-transfers cargo across the cell called transcytosis

66
Q
  • Describe the overall pathway of a glucose molecule being converted to
    ATP with or without oxygen present
A

Steps 1-3:energy investment, glycolysis

Steps4-5:cleavage of six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon sugars

Steps 6-10:energy generation

67
Q
  • Describe the role of fermentation in supporting glycolysis
A

-Allow ATP to be produced in absence of O2

-NADH is oxidized to NAD to go back into glycolysis

68
Q
  • Describe the requirement for oxygen for the Kreb’s cycle to occur
A

Oxidative phosphorylation is required to refresh NAD and FAD

69
Q

Chloroplast

A

organelle found in plants in which photosynthesis occurs
-surrounded by 2 membranes called chloroplast envelope, outer membrane=highly permeable, inner membrane=selectively permeable

70
Q

Stroma

A

large inner space

71
Q

Thylakoids

A

third membrane forms flattened disc-like sacs, they contain chlorophyll

72
Q

Chlorophyll

A

molecule which is capable of absorbing light

73
Q

Photosystems

A

large multiprotein complexes involved in the light reactions which capture and convert light energy into chemical energy

74
Q

Light reactions:

A

-occur in thylakoid membrane
-goal is to make ATP to power dark reactions
inputs=light,H2O,ADP,NADP
outputs=ATP,O2,NADPH

75
Q

Dark reactions:

A

-occurs in stroma
-goal is to fix/reduce CO2 to produce organic molecules
inputs=ATP,NADPH,CO2
outputs=sugars, amino acids, fatty acids

76
Q
  • Describe the similarities and differences between the electron transport chain and light
    Reactions
A

-Like with mobile electron carriers moving electrons between respiratory centers in electron transport chain, mobile electron carriers shuttle electrons between photosystems
-goal of both is to make a H gradient

cells and genes (2 decks)

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