Cells Flashcards
Osmotic pressure
Minimum amount of pressure required to stop the diffusion of pure water across the membrane. If a vessel is divided into two Chambers and pure water is placed into one chamber while a solution such as sugar water is placed in the other chamber the water level will rise on the side of the greater solute concentration therefore the diffusion of water will continue in this direction until the pressure becomes too great The water will have moved from high to low water concentrations.
Passive transport
The movement of substances across the cell membrane without the input of energy.
Entropy
Unavailable energy disorder
Nonpolar molecules
Hydrophobic electrons are shared equally and there is no resulting charge
Polar molecules
Have either a positive or negative charge
Examples of nonpolar molecules
Oxygen gas carbon dioxide an uncharged lipids are not repelled by the hydrophobic interior of the membrane
What are forms of passive transport
Simple diffusion osmosis and facilated diffusion
Osmosis
The passive transport of water across the membrane most polar molecule cannot use simple diffusion but water molecules are small enough to slowly squeezed between the phospholipids
What can water use to channel proteins to increase the rate of osmosis
Aguaporins
When proteins are used to transport substances down their concentration gradients
Facilitated diffusion
Gradient
Increase or decrease
Facilitated diffusion
Molecules diffuse across the plasma membrane with assistance from membrane proteins such as channels and carriers a concentration gradient exists for these molecules so they have the potential to diffuse into or out of the cell by moving down it.
Large polar and or charged substances require shielding from the interior of the membrane and they may use
Channel or Carrier proteins to assist in their transport
Osmosis does not require what to be driven by the difference in solute
ATP
Active transport
Energy is used to move solutes into or out of the cell
During what transport are substances pumped against their concentration gradients from areas of low to high concentration
Active transport
Active transport is required for processes such as
The maintenance of a membrane potential and the uptake of glucose by intestinal cells even between meals
The pumping of solutes by a carrier protein is directly coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP
Primary me active transport
Relies on ATP to generate an electrochemical gradient and it is this grattent that directly drives the active transport of a different solute
Secondary active transport
As one solute moves down as graduate another is
Pumped up its gradient
When both solutes move in the same direction it is called
Symport
When solutes move in opposite direction it is called
Antiport
Endocytosis and exocytosis are types of
Active transport that employ vesicles to import or export substances. they do not necessarily move solutes up their concentration gradient
Endocytosis
Is cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell
The process of bringing substances out of the cell
Exocytosis
Example of passive transport
Riding a bicycle down a hill where you don’t need to put an energy
Diffusion and osmosis have in common
Both move from a high to low concentration
Osmosis is simply
The diffusion of water
Active transport requires
Energy
Example of active transport
Riding a bike up the hill
What are the three types of active transport
Pump or channel, endocytosis, and exocytosis
A cell uses a what to move objects from low concentration to high concentration
Pump or channel
Membrane channels act as
Doorways that lets particles move passively
Diffusion can move
Materials into or out of the cell from high to low concentrations
Concentration gradient
Tells us which particles are going to move passively
All channels move substances down their concentration gradient by
Diffusion and does not require energy
Unlike carrier proteins channels interact very weakly with the
Solutes they transport for allowing us to move rapidly across the membrane
Channel proteins that allow the passage of water are called
Aquaporins and they’re always open
Ion channels are usually gated and they open and close
In response to various stimuli
What channels respond to changes in membrane potential and are vital to generating electrical impulses and nerve in cardiac cells
Voltage-gated
Ion channels open in response to The binding of a levante such as a hormone or neurotransmitter
Ligand gated
Ion channels respond to a physical stimulus such as a stretching of the membrane and are useful and sensory
Mechanically gated
Types of vesicular transport that are used for transport a very large particles or bulk quantities of smaller particles AR examples of active transport due to requiring energy
Exocytosis and endocytosis
During exocytosis products and waste are transported via
Vesicle to the cell membrane where the vesicle fuses releasing its contents into the extracellular environment
Exocytosis components
Glycoproteins and glycolipids
What involves the injection of fluid large particles are Target molecules and the process entails the cell membrane folding inward pinching off into a vesicle
Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
The ingestion of fluids
Pinocytosis
Takes in any enzymes and nutrients that happened to be available during endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Taking in of particles eating them sometimes even entire cells. immune system cells ingest harmful bacteria before destroying them.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
A form of endocytosis that targets certain molecules such as low density lipoproteins that are low in concentration outside the cell
Both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum contain
Cisternae
Cisternae
Is the continuous membranes of the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Is continuous with the nuclear envelope and it’s ribosomes studded cisternae have the appearance of flattened sacs
Rough ER
The ribosome synthesizes polypeptides which are guided into the lumen before being modified packaged in a vesicle and sent to different regions within the cell often the Golgi apparatus
Rough ER
Ribosomes are sent out of the ER via
Exocytosis
The cisternae is more tubular and shape and lack ribosomes
Smooth ER
Is involved in synthesize of lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol
Smooth ER
The part of liver cells that detoxifies drugs and regulates and stores calcium ions
Smooth ER
Secretary proteins
Proteins destined to be exported from the cell
Secretary proteins and proteins that are associated with plasma membrane are synthesized on ribosomes that are bound to the cytoplasmic side
Of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and these ribosomes are not permanently fixed
Translocons
Ribosomes that are not permanently fixed and will bind to sites
Ribosomes that are free in the cytosol will produce proteins that will remain
Only in the cytosol of the cell
As a polypeptide chain is growing out of a bound ribosome during translation the chain is fed
Through a tiny pour into the lumen of the rough ER
Enzymes in the lumen May modify proteins by
Convey Lily bonding a carbohydrate to form a glycoprotein.
The endoplasmic reticulum constitutes roughly
Half of the plasma membrane in a cell
The membrane system of the rough ER is connected to the
Outer nuclear membrane
Forming flattened sacs that connect to each other in a manner that resembles a multi-story parking garage in the endoplasmic reticulum
Cisternae
Helicoidal sheets of the membrane structure of the endoplasmic reticulum
Terasaki ramps
Newly synthesized proteins are packaged in the transport vesicles in the endoplasmic reticulum and are coated with
Protein complexes that help direct each vesicle to its destination
Mitochondria
Powerhouses of the cell that produce the most of the cells ATP
Mitochondria has how many membranes
2 which include the outer membrane that acts as a selective barrier and the inner membrane where most of the ATP is made
What does the inner membrane of the mitochondria do
The inner membrane is folded into structures called cristae and is within these folds that the electron transport chain of aerobic respiration.
What is between the membranes of the mitochondria
The intermembrane space where a proton motive force is used to drive chemiosmosis which is the making of ATP
Chemiosmosis
Synthesizing ATP
What is inside of the matrix of the mitochondria
Ribosomes and mitochondria DNA
How many genes does DNA of the mitochondria carry in humans
37 genes
Mitochondria plays a role in program cell death called
Apoptosis
Mitochondria
Makes energy
Mitochondria
Organelle found in Eukaryotic cells.
Mitochondria makes
ATP
Mitochondria ATP stands for
Adenosine triphosphate
Mitochondria oxidizes
Glucose and fatty acids
Plants make their own glucose via
Photosynthesis
Plants also have
Mitochondria
Plants use glucose to convert
Energy
Structure of mitochondria
Inner membrane which helps with the transport chain houses to compartments including intermembrane space and matrix base. the outer membrane contains proteins called porins that lets sugars and ions pass
Mitochondria DNA
Mtdna
Mitochondria functions
Cellular respiratory cellular differentiation, cellular degeneration
Mitochondria converts glucose into
Pyruvate and then into ATP
Mitochondria ATP turns into
Acetyl COA
Stages of mitochondria
Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphate
Proteins in mitochondria that causes apophysis
Bcl-2 and cytc-c
Mitochondria is described as semi-autonomous because
Each one has its own genome and ribosomes and produces many of its own protein
Mitochondria copies that are circular DNA molecules before
Undergoing fission
Mitochondria does not rely on nuclear genes to produce many of the proteins required for DNA replication instead it
Gets its proteins imported from the cytosol
Endosymbiont theory
Suggests that mitochondria were once free-living prokaryotes
Nucleus
Small structure that contains the chromosomes and regulates the DNA of a cell
Nucleus
Regulates the DNA of a cell
Nucleus
Designing structure of eukaryotic cells
All eukaryotic cells have
A nucleus
A nucleus is responsible for
Passing on genetic traits between generations
Nucleus contains 6 parts
The nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin and ribosomes
Chromosomes
Highly condensed thread-like rods DNA
DNA
Shorts for the deoxyribonucleic acid is a genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal
Chromatin
Consists of the DNA and protein that makes up chromosomes
Nucleolus
Structure contained within a nucleus consists of protein and a small round does not have a membrane, is involved in protein synthesis and synthesizes and stores RNA ribonucleic acid
Nucleolus
Involved in protein synthesis and stores RNA
Nuclear envelope
This encloses the structure of the nucleus and it consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids
Nuclear pores
These are involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm
This is the liquid within the nucleus it is similar to the cytoplasm
Not only is DNA found in the nucleus but also
In mitochondria and chloroplast
The nuclear envelope contains double membranes with pores made out of large protein complexes that regulate the passage of
RNA, ribosomal subunits, proteins, ions and signal molecules
Enclosed in the double membrane the nucleus is
Nucleoplasm, chromatin, and a non membrane-bound nucleus which produces ribosomal subunits
Chromatin
DNA and associated histone proteins
The inner nuclear membrane is covered by a mesh of protein filaments called
The nuclear lamina which stabilizes the nuclear us while regulating events such as DNA replication and cell division
The outer membrane of the nucleus is continuous with the
Endoplasmic reticulum
The nucleus is responsible for
Storage of DNA, the site of DNA replication, and transcription the synthesis of RNA.
The largest structure inside the nucleus that is responsible for producing ribosomes subunits
Nucleolus
Has no membrane and is made of three regions in the nucleus.
Fibrillar center FC - is where the ribosomal RNA genes are located and transcribed.
Dense Fibrillar Center DFC - processes the pre rrna
Granular -GC -immature ribosomal subunits are assembled
All are RNA is synthesized in the nucleolus except
5s-rrna which is made in the nucleoplasm before being incorporated into ribosomal subunits.
The nucleolus disappears early in mitosis of what stage
Prophase
What stage does the nucleolus reappear in mitosis
The final stage telophase
When the nucleolus first appears early in mitosis it appears
10 small units at various chromosome sites called nucleolus organizer regions in NORS
Is the double membrane that encloses the nucleus separating the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm of the cell
Nuclear envelope
There is a 2240 nanometer gap between the two phospholipid bilayers
Nuclear envelope
Two phospholipid bilayers called regarding the nuclear envelope
Perinuclear space
The pores in the nuclear envelope each are made of hundreds of proteins called
Nucleoporins and is an Octagonal Aqueous channel
The proteins in the nuclear envelope interact with transporter proteins called
Karyopherinswhich shuttle large molecules like RNA and certain proteins back and forth between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
Smaller molecules and ions are able to diffuse through the pore complex of the nuclear envelope without
The aid of a transporter
The cores of the nuclear envelope are essential for the import of the
Enzymes in nucleotides that are required for DNA synthesis and transcription and export of mRNA, TRNA and ribosomal subunits that are required for translation
The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the
Endoplasmic reticulum and the lumen of the ER is open to the Perinuclear space which allows for the easy exchange of materials between two organelles.
The nucleoplasm mix side of the inner membrane is lined with a network of protein filaments called
Nuclear lamina and he supports the nuclear us while eating in the organization of chromatin
Lumen
Inner space
The stage of the cell cycle in which the nucleus divides
Mitosis
Longest stage in mitosis that prepares for division by copying organelles and duplicating chromosomes
Interphase
Mitosis is usually found by
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm and results into identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
Cytokinesis
Phase where chromatin condenses More dense into chromosomes, the nucleolus and nuclear membrane break down and the mitotic spindle begins to form
Prophase
Stage where the spindle aligns the chromosomes along the metaphase plate
Metaphase
Sister chromatids are splits at the centromere and pulled towards opposite poles
Anaphase
Centromere
Center of a chromosome where everything attached the little dot
Phase where chromosomes uncoil, in nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, a nucleolus forms in each new nucleus the mitotic spindle breaks down and cytokinesis begins
Telophase
In order to maintain the number of chromosomes in our cells the cell will
Replicate its DNA before mitosis
Mitosis cannot divide
Sex cells
Cell cycle function
Cells grow, regenerate, repair themselves
What cells undergo mitosis
Somatic cells
What is the acronym for mitosis
PMAT
Mitosis splits
DNA
The human diploid cell means
There are two sets of chromosomes 1 set 23 from mother and one set 23 from father
In order to maintain the number of chromosomes in our cells
The cell will replicate its DNA before mitosis
Phase where the cell’s nuclear membrane dissolves in the chromosomes start to condense, microtubules extending from the centralist on both sides of the cell also begin to form. The microtubules along the centrosomes form the spindle apparatus that will eventually help move the chromosomes into place
Prophase
Phase where the microtubules attach to the centromeres of chromosomes causing the chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell
Metaphase
Cease where chromosomes get pulled apart into their sister chromatids and move to opposite ends of the cell and the plasma membrane also starts to indent to prepare for the actual division of the cell
Anaphase
Phase where the chromosomes relax, the spindle apparatus disassembles and the nuclear membrane reforms in each end of the cell and the plasma membrane of the cell develops and even deeper Furrow that will end up dividing the cell down the middle. However the cytoplasm has not actually divided yet
Telophase
The process where the cell actually divides itself into
Cytokinesis
Chromosomes resemble the shape of
X with identical DNA in each sister chromatid
In prophase the sister chromatids are bound together along their entire length buy protein complexes
Called cohesion but by metaphase all cohesion are broken down except those found at the centromere.
In prophase protein-based structures are formed at the centromere to serve as an attachment for the microtubules of the spindle
Kinetochores
In prophase as the connector chore microtubules attach to each chromosome at the centromere other microtubules called what overlap at the center of the cell never interacting with the
Polar fibers
During this stage there are chromosomes positioned along an imaginary line between two centrosomes known as the spindle equator or equator plate
Metaphase
During what stage does the connect. Or fibers lengthen or shorten as needed to line up the chromosomes in the movement is assisted by force is exerted by motor proteins
Metaphase
What stage of mitosis is chromosomes at their most condensed form
Anaphase
during what stage of mitosis does the connect a chore fiber shortened as a result of depolarization splitting the centromeres and pulling the liberated chromosomes toward the centrosomes. as they are dragged through the cytosol the linear chromosomes bend into a v shape
Anaphase
During what stage does a polar fibers continue to elongate as a cell as the chromosomes uncoil in the nucleolus as well as the microtubules of the spindle being the depolymerize and disappearing
Telophase
What stage does cytokinesis usually begin
Storing telophase or late anaphase
Chromosomes are
Thread-like structures made of dense DNA strands
What does a chromosome look like during interphase
They are invisible to the human eye
What does the chromosome look like during prophase
Chromosomes start to condense
And what phase are the chromosomes most easiest to see
Anaphase and telophase
The point where two sister chromatids are connected
It’s centromere
What are the other structures on a chromosome called other than the centromere
The arms
What is it called when all the arms on a chromosome are equal in the same size
Isobrachial
What is it called when the arms of a chromosome are different sizes
Heterobrachial
What are the arms of a chromosome classified if not equal
Smaller arms are classified as p and the longer are classified as q
What is a telecentric chromosome
When the centromere is at the very end of the arm of a chromatid however you will not see this in humans
What is acrocentric chromosome
Refers to a chromosome with a centromere place closer to the terminal of one end of the arm resulting in chromosome arms of different sizes
What is a sub metacentric chromosome
Refers to the chromosome centromere located near the middle but not directly so that the arms are still unequal in length
What is a metacentric chromosome
Chromosome with a centromere that is located in the middle with two seemingly equal chromosomal arms
The centromere of a metaphase chromosome contains
2 kinetochore facing in opposite directions
What are attached to the main part of the arms of chromosomes
Satellites by only a thread of chromatin
Secondary constructions on chromosomes
Nor and joint are always constant in their positions and often used as markers
Nor , nuclear organizer region
Specialized reduce nucleolus and rrna
Telomere
A short repeated DNA sequence complex with proteins which are synthesized separately an attitude of chromosome tips
How do telomeres help
Provide stability by preventing infusions of chromosomes, act as intiators of synapsis and shortening of telomeres cause senescence and aging
Chromo-meres
Bead like structures and are tightly coiled no longer visible at metaphase
A chromosomes
Normal invariant set of chromosomes which are diagnostic of the species
B chromosomes
Extra chromosomes mostly heterochromatic smaller than normal chromosomes and exhibit slower replication
B chromosomes
Do not take part in mitosis, segregate randomly and don’t affect phenotype
Functions of chromosomes
Contain hereditary information in the form of genes and act as a hereditary vehicle,
Control division, growth, metabolism and differentiation in a cell
The polarity of chromosomes determines the expression of gametophyte or sporophyte generation
Crossing over and aberrations of chromosomes introduce variations of population is a
Function of chromosome
Transmit hereditary information from generation to generation
Chromosome video I have the phases of the cell cycle and meiosis the s*** maybe I will you break
Cell cycle can be described as
The life of the cell beginning with the formation and ending with its own division
The phases of a cell cycle
G0, g1, s, g2, m
G1 phase
First Gap
S phase
Synthesize
G2 phase
Second Gap
M phase
Mitotic phase
Non growing State in which the cell performs its job and does not divide
G0
Why might the g0 phase occur
it is not always reversible cells are deficient in nutrients are growth factors may be blocked from proceeding to the s phase
Quiescent
Inactivity or dormant
Mature love ourselves and Minnie adult stem cells exist in a
Quiescent State and only divide in response to stimuli such as tissue damage
A cell with damaged DNA is likely to enter an irreversible okay state that allows the cell to avoid apoptosis which is programmed cell death but will remain in g0 indefinitely
Senescence, loss of cell growth
Highly differentiated cells such as nerve and cardiac muscle cells
Permanently leave the cell cycle because they are genetically programmed to do so
The phase of the cell cycle is the first part of interphase and begins immediately after cell division.
G1
During this stage the volume of the cell increases and metabolic activities that were inhibited during mitosis are accelerated. The cell begins the task of copying its organelles, synthesizing mRNA, TRNA, and rrna in producing the enzymes required for DNA replication.
G1 phase
Longest phase of the cell cycle averaging 6 to 12 hours some cells remain in this phase 4 years before the cell is allowed to proceed to the next it is inspected at a checkpoint Estelle’s it goes back to g0
G1
Phase of the cell cycle that falls between g1 and g2 of interphase.
S phase
Phase that averages 6 to 8 hours each molecule of DNA is replicated doubling the genetic content.
S phase
M phase
Mitotic phase that divides its copy to DNA in cytoplasm to make new cells. centrosomes are duplicated during the stage while transcription and protein synthesis are inhibited.
Second Gap, these follows DNA replication and is the final part of interphase.
G2 phase
3-4 hours of cell growth continued replication of organelles and protein synthesis. The centrosomes that were duplicated during the s phase begin to mature as microtubules become more organized and do centrioles elongate.
G2 phase
Cells that are significantly and irreparable damaged will enter a state where they will be eliminated through program cell death
Senescence
Mitosis
Nuclear division
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasmic division
What makes up the m phase of the cell cycle
Mitosis and cytokinesis
There is no growth during this phase,
M phase
In animal cells, Cytokinesis results from the formation of a
Contractile ring of actin and non muscle myosin 2 filaments. This ring forms around the equator of the cell directly beneath the plasma membrane and parallel to the metaphase plate
Myosin
Is a motor protein that uses ATP to move the actin filaments causing the rings to contract like a drawstring
The shortest phase of the cell cycle averaging one to two hours
M phase
Proliferate
To produce cells
Cell growth can be prevented from
Inside and outside of the cell
Gross arrest may occur in conditions of
Oxidative stress, infection or depleted levels of nutrients and growth factors
Gametogenesis
Process by which diploid germ cells give rise to haploid gametes sex cells.
Gamates
Sex cells
Germ cells are produced in the early stages of
Embryogenesis and migrate from the primitive streak of the gonads where they later undergo meiosis
All other cells are restricted to mitosis and have no potential to produce
Gametes
Mitosis is a single division that results in
Two identical cells each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
In meiosis a germ cell undergoes
Two rounds of cell division meiosis 1 and meiosis 2
During meiosis 1,
homologous pairs of chromosomes exchange portions of their DNA before they are separated and distributed independently to daughter cells. this happened so that the daughter cells are genetically unique and the chromosome number is cut in half.
During meiosis 2
Results in 4 haploid cells these cells de varenne today to give rise to the mature gametes that fuse during fertilization restoring the diploid number
Haploid
Number of chromosomes is cut in half
The production of OVA
Oogenesis
The production of sperm
Spermatogenesis
Smallest of the human cells measuring about 0.05 mm in length
Sperm cell
Sperm cell has three sections
Head, midpiece, and tail
The head of the sperm cell contains
Centrioles in a compacted nucleus with tightly coiled DNA
The anterior surface of the head of sperm cells is capped with
Acrosome
Acrosome
A Golgi derived structure that is packed with enzymes that assist in the penetration of the zona pellucida and is therefore essential for fertilization
Between 50 and 100 mitochondria spiral around the midpiece of the sperm cell which is
The only part of the sperm that contains any mitochondria
The ATP produced by the mitochondria Powers the sliding motion of the microtubules within the… Regarding the sperm cell
Tail, or flagellum of the sperm causing it to undulate
Undulate
Move up and down
Flagellum
Tail of the sperm
What is the microtubule based core of the flagellum called
Axoneme and consists of 9 doublet of microtubules arranged around a central pair
Oocyte
A cell in an ovary
When an oocyte undergoes meiosis and cytokinesis the cytoplasm divides
Unequally to produce one large visible ovum, which is a mature female reproductive egg
Ovum
Immature female reproductive egg
The ooplasm love the egg contains an abundance of nutrients that will sustain the
Zygote, and later the daughter cells that are produced by mitosis, all the molecules such as enzymes RNA as well as organelles
Sperm cells to contain mitochondria but are left behind when
The midpiece and Taylor released from the head during fertilization
Each gamate contributes how many autosomes
22 non-sex chromosomes and one sex chromosome to the zygote
The egg always contribute a what kind of
X
The sperm always contributes either and what chromosome
X or y
Germ cell
a cell containing half the number of chromosomes of a somatic cell and unable to unite with one from the opposite sex to form a new individual
Germ cells are different from somatic cells because they can
Undergo both mitosis and meiosis
Homologous
Alike
Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tube within
24 hours of ovulation
How many sperms are jaculated and reach into the secondary oocyte
About 200
When does sperm makes contact with occyle, it goes through the Corona radiata and binds to receptor proteins in the
zona pellucida
What releases enzymes to allow the sperm to pass through the zona Pellucida to the membrane of the oocyte
Acrosome
Actin filaments extend from the sperm to form a tubular structure
Acrosome apparatus, through which its pronucleus has passed. The midpiece and Tail left behind
Entry of the pro-nucleus stimulates
The cortical reaction with enzymes from the cortical granules beneath the membrane of the occyte diffuse into the zona pellucida causing it to harden and preventing fertilization by more than one sperm
The oocyte then divides unequally by
Meiosis 2 to produce an ovum, the pro nucleus of the sperm fuses with a pro nucleus of the ovum and a zygote fertilized egg is formed
Zygote
A fertilized egg
After fertilization, the zygote develops into a cluster of cells called
Morula
The morula is pushed from the fallopian tube to the
Uterine cavity by peristalsis which is muscle contractions and the wave-like motions of Celia where it floats freely in the uterus for 3 days using uterine secretions as nourishment
The cells of the morula begin to give rise to a blastocyst with a fluid-filled cavity and
Two types of cells, the inner cell Mass will give rise to the embryo and the outer trophoblast develop into the placenta
What degenerates around 6 days after fertilization in preparation for implantation
Zona pellucida
Blastocyst secrets human chronic gonadotropin
Which stimulates the production of other hormones
About one week after ovulation the blastocyst attaches to the
Endometrium and outer cells of the trophoblast
About 2 weeks after fertilization the blastocyst it’s fully implanted in the endometrium is
Now called the decidua
Decidua
The maternal contribution to the placenta
During the pre embryonic stage of development the zygote undergoes
Cleavage which is dividing mitotically to form a morula
During gastrulation the cells of the embryo are reorganize to form the
Embryonic germ layers which include ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm to produce tissues and organs of the embryo
A neutral plate derived from the ectoderm invades the mesoderm to form the neutral tube in a process called
Neurulation
The development of the heartbeat
Organogensis, which beats around the third week
Organogenesis
The development of the heartbeat the digestive system and the other internal organs start to form as well as the placenta and the umbilical cord
By the end of the eight weeks the organ systems have formed in the embryo is now a
Fetus
Birth normally occurs around how many weeks of post fertilizations
40 weeks
How does the fetus adapt quickly as it transitions environments
By hormones notably cortisol and catecholamines
Neonate
Newborn child less than 4 weeks old
Before birth the neonate relies on oxygen from it’s mother’s blood and its lungs are
Collapsed and fluid-filled
As labor approaches the secretion of fluid from the fetal lungs decrease creases while re-absorption
Increases
At birth the lungs fill with air and the rest of the fluid
Leaves the lungs with the first breath triggering critical circulatory changes
Pulmonary resistance decreases pulmonary blood flow
Increases
The shunts that cause the blood to bypass the lungs and liver
Both constrict at birth and close soon after and the neonate will no longer receive nourishment from the placenta and will rely on the mother’s milk and stores of glycogen in the liver.
At birth the neonate must also expand energy to keep warm so it must
Increase its my tablet rate through muscle movements and the burning of brown fat
Epithelial cells
Lining and covering tissues of the body involved in protection, absorption, secretion and or filter ization
Squamous cell shape
Epithelial cell that is flattened and scale-like
Cuboidal
Epithelial cell that is cube-shaped
Columnar
Epithelial cell that is long and thin
Simple epithelia
Single layer of cells, epithelial tissue
Pseudo stratified
Appearance of multiple layers as a result in differences and cell shape and location epithelial cells
Stratified epithelial
Multiple layers of cells of epithelial cells
Stratified squamous epithelial tissues are found in locations that experience friction such as
The mouth, esophagus, and exterior skin
Simple epithelia
Line the digestive tract and harbor mucus producing goblet cells
Simple squamous epithelia
Forms membranes where filtration or diffusion occurs such as alveoli of the lungs
Are the most abundant tissues in the body
Connective tissues
Abundant
Large amounts
Are highly vascular the exception being ligaments, tendons and cartilage
Connective tissue
Support and protect the body and are characterized by the presence of a nonliving matrix
Connective tissue cells
Secreted by the cells of the connective tissue and it consists of ground substance and protein fibers
The matrix
Ground substance of connective tissue
Water, proteins and carbohydrates
Protein fibers connective tissue
Collagen, elastin, or reticular fibers
A connective tissue made of blood cells and plasma the transports oxygen carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste
Blood
Made of fat cells that cushion and insulate the body that is a connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Osseous tissue
Bone consists of osteocytes surrounded by a large matrix of calcium salts and collagen
A connective tissue that provides support what is made of cells called Chondrocytes and is more flexible
Cartilage
Made of dense fibrous connective tissue which is made mostly of collagen fibers
Ligaments and tendons
When cells are competent they are able to
Receive signals from adjacent or nearby cells
Cells that secrete signal molecules are called
Inducers and cells that respond our responsers
Autocrine signals
Are self-generated they act on the same cell that Secreted them
Paracrine signals
Diffuse in cells in close proximity
Endocrine signals
Enters the blood and travels to distant tissues
Juxtacrine signals require
Contact between cells
Sometimes two different tissues respond to each other signals promoting differentiation in each other
Reciprocal induction
Is required for normal embryonic development that begins during gastrulation and continues throughout life
Cell migration
Migration is initiated by
Signaling molecules that trigger the detachment of cells from their substrate, underlying substance
Potency stem cells
Describes the ability of a cell to differentiate
Totipotent cells have complete
Potency
Diffential gene expression
The mechanism for cell specialization and ultimately the development of an organism
Programmed cell death
Induced by signals that activate protesis called caspases. Cell shrink, chromatin condenses as the cell membrane bulges out into blebs. Are then called apoptotic bodies in a digested by phagocytes cells
Senescence
Progressive decline in function as a result of biological aging.can be drawn by the activation of deactivation of a tumor or a way to reduce the threat of cancer.
Telomeres
Repetitive non-coding sequences of DNA found at the ends of chromosomes that protect the coding sequences. Every time cell divides the chromosomes shorten because DNA polymerase cannot replicate at the end portion
Telomerase
Is it ensign that can add nucleotides to these problematic and portions what is only found in certain types of cells such as germ stem cells, cells cancer cells and even adult stem cells
Medial
Means near to the midline of the body example the little finger is medial to the thumb
Lateral
Is the opposite of medial. They were first two structures further away from the body’s midline at the sides. For example the thumb is lateral to the little finger
Proximal
Refers to the structures closer to the center of the body. For example the hip is proximal to the knee.
Distal
Refers to the structures further away from the center of the body. The knee is distal to the hip.
Anterior
Refers to the structures in front
Posterior
Refers to the structures behind
Cephalad and Cephalic
Adverbs meaning towards the head example cranial is the adjective meaning the school
Superior
Means above or closer to the Head
Inferior
Means below closer to the feet
Transverse plane
Horizontal divides the patient’s body into imaginary upper and lower halves
Cuadual
Inferior
Sagittal plane
Divides the body vertically into left and right sections runs through the midline of the body
Coronal plane
Divides the body vertically into front or back sections anterior and posterior
How many different tissues types are in the human body
4, connective, epithelial, nervous, and muscle
Where is the parathyroid gland located
In the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland on the posterior aspect
Describe the anatomical location of the abdomen
Superior to the pelvis inferior to the rib cage
