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cells Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the basic structure of a plasma membrane?

A

It consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, allowing selective transport of substances.

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2
Q

What is the main function of the nucleus?

A

The nucleus contains genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell’s activities, including replication and transcription.

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3
Q

What are mitochondria responsible for?

A

Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration and ATP production.

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4
Q

Where does photosynthesis occur in plant cells?

A

Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, specifically in the thylakoids for light-dependent reactions and the stroma for light-independent reactions.

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5
Q

What are ribosomes responsible for?

A

Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis, translating mRNA into polypeptides.

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6
Q

What is the difference between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Rough ER is covered with ribosomes and synthesizes proteins, while smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroids.

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7
Q

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

A

The Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids from the ER into vesicles.

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8
Q

What do lysosomes do?

A

Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

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9
Q

What is the role of the cell wall in plant cells?

A

The cell wall provides structural support and prevents the cell from bursting under osmotic pressure.

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10
Q

What is the function of the vacuole in plant cells?

A

The vacuole stores nutrients and waste products and helps maintain turgor pressure.

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11
Q

What is binary fission?

A

Binary fission is the process by which prokaryotic cells divide to form two genetically identical daughter cells.

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12
Q

How is mitosis different from meiosis?

A

Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid cells, while meiosis produces four genetically varied haploid cells.

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13
Q

What is the purpose of mitosis?

A

Mitosis is for growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells.

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14
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

Homologous chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent, with the same genes but possibly different alleles.

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15
Q

Describe the structure of the phospholipid bilayer.

A

It has hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outward and hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing inward, forming a barrier to water-soluble substances.

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16
Q

What is the role of channel proteins in the membrane?

A

Channel proteins facilitate the transport of charged or polar molecules across the cell membrane.

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17
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Facilitated diffusion is the passive movement of molecules across the membrane via specific carrier or channel proteins.

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18
Q

How does active transport differ from passive transport?

A

Active transport requires energy (ATP) to move molecules against a concentration gradient, while passive transport moves molecules down a concentration gradient without energy.

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19
Q

What is osmosis?

A

Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential to lower water potential.

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20
Q

What are the steps of cell fractionation?

A
  1. Homogenisation of cells, 2. Filtration to remove debris, 3. Ultracentrifugation to separate organelles based on density.
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21
Q

What is the mitotic index?

A

The mitotic index is the ratio of cells undergoing mitosis to the total number of cells in a sample.

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22
Q

What is the importance of cholesterol in membranes?

A

Cholesterol regulates membrane fluidity, making it more stable and less permeable to very small molecules.

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23
Q

How do temperature and ethanol affect membrane permeability?

A

Higher temperatures and ethanol increase membrane fluidity, disrupting the phospholipid bilayer and increasing permeability.

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24
Q

What is co-transport?

A

Co-transport involves the coupled transport of two molecules across the membrane via a carrier protein, one moving down its concentration gradient driving the movement of another against its gradient.

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25
Q

What is antigenic variability?

A

Antigenic variability is the ability of pathogens to alter their surface antigens to evade detection by the immune system.

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26
Q

What is the role of T cells in the immune response?

A

T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, with helper T cells activating other immune cells and cytotoxic T cells killing infected or cancerous cells.

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27
Q

What is the role of B cells in the immune response?

A

B cells are involved in humoral immunity, producing specific antibodies against pathogens.

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28
Q

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A

The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the cell membrane, where proteins float in or on the fluid phospholipid bilayer.

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29
Q

What is the difference between TEM and SEM?

A

Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) provide 2D images of internal structures, while scanning electron microscopes (SEM) give 3D images of surface structures.

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30
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Apoptosis is programmed cell death, preventing the division of damaged cells, which could lead to cancer.

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31
Q

What is the role of the nucleolus?

A

The nucleolus is responsible for producing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembling ribosomes.

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32
Q

What is the structure and function of the nuclear envelope?

A

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane with pores that controls the passage of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

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33
Q

What is the function of the cristae in mitochondria?

A

Cristae increase the surface area for enzymes involved in ATP production during aerobic respiration.

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34
Q

What are thylakoids and their function?

A

Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts, where light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur.

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35
Q

What is the stroma in chloroplasts?

A

The stroma is the fluid-filled space in chloroplasts where light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) take place.

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36
Q

What is the role of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

A

The SER synthesizes lipids, steroids, and carbohydrates and is involved in detoxification.

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37
Q

What are lysosomes and their role in cell digestion?

A

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

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38
Q

What is the function of plasmodesmata in plant cells?

A

Plasmodesmata are channels between plant cells that allow the transport of materials and communication between adjacent cells.

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39
Q

What is the function of vacuoles in animal cells?

A

In animal cells, vacuoles are small and temporary, often involved in the storage or transport of substances.

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40
Q

What is the tonoplast?

A

The tonoplast is the membrane surrounding the central vacuole in plant cells, controlling the exchange of substances.

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41
Q

What is a key function of the plant cell wall?

A

The plant cell wall provides structural support and prevents the cell from bursting due to osmotic pressure.

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42
Q

What is the function of 70S ribosomes in prokaryotes?

A

70S ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis in prokaryotic cells.

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43
Q

What is the role of the capsule in prokaryotic cells?

A

The capsule provides protection against desiccation and helps prokaryotic cells evade the host immune system.

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44
Q

How do viruses replicate inside host cells?

A

Viruses attach to host cells, inject their genetic material, and use the host’s machinery to replicate viral components.

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45
Q

What is a key difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles, such as a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles.

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46
Q

What is the resolution of a microscope?

A

Resolution is the ability to distinguish two points as separate entities in a microscopic image.

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47
Q

What is the difference between magnification and resolution?

A

Magnification refers to how much larger an image is compared to the actual object, while resolution refers to the clarity of detail in the image.

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48
Q

How does a transmission electron microscope (TEM) work?

A

TEM passes a beam of electrons through a thin specimen, providing detailed images of the internal structures of cells in 2D.

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49
Q

How does a scanning electron microscope (SEM) work?

A

SEM scans a beam of electrons across the surface of a specimen to produce detailed 3D images of the surface structure.

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50
Q

What is cell fractionation?

A

Cell fractionation is the process of breaking open cells and separating organelles by size and density through centrifugation.

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51
Q

What is homogenization in cell fractionation?

A

Homogenization is the breaking open of cells, often using a blender, to release organelles.

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52
Q

What is the purpose of ultracentrifugation?

A

Ultracentrifugation is used to separate cell components by spinning samples at high speeds, causing the heaviest organelles to form pellets.

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53
Q

What are the steps of mitosis?

A

The steps of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

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54
Q

What happens during prophase in mitosis?

A

During prophase, chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers form.

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55
Q

What happens during metaphase in mitosis?

A

In metaphase, chromosomes align along the metaphase plate, attached to spindle fibers by their centromeres.

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56
Q

What happens during anaphase in mitosis?

A

In anaphase, sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by spindle fibers.

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57
Q

What happens during telophase in mitosis?

A

During telophase, the nuclear envelope reforms around separated chromosomes, which begin to uncoil.

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58
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells.

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59
Q

What is the mitotic index formula?

A

The mitotic index is calculated as: (Number of cells in mitosis / Total number of cells) x 100.

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60
Q

What is the significance of a high mitotic index?

A

A high mitotic index indicates active cell division, which can be a sign of tissue growth or cancer.

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61
Q

How do cancer treatments target the cell cycle?

A

Cancer treatments often disrupt the cell cycle by inhibiting DNA replication, mitosis, or spindle fiber formation, slowing tumor growth.

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62
Q

What is binary fission?

A

Binary fission is the process of prokaryotic cell division, where the circular DNA replicates and the cell splits into two daughter cells.

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63
Q

How is ATP used in active transport?

A

ATP provides energy to carrier proteins, allowing them to move molecules against a concentration gradient.

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64
Q

What is the role of carrier proteins in active transport?

A

Carrier proteins change shape to transport specific molecules across membranes using energy from ATP.

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65
Q

What is co-transport?

A

Co-transport is the simultaneous transport of two molecules through a membrane, with one moving down its concentration gradient to drive the other against its gradient.

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66
Q

What is the definition of water potential?

A

Water potential is the tendency of water to move from one area to another, typically measured in kilopascals (kPa).

67
Q

How does osmosis differ from diffusion?

A

Osmosis is the movement of water across a partially permeable membrane, whereas diffusion is the movement of solutes.

68
Q

What is plasmolysis?

A

Plasmolysis is the process where plant cells lose water in a hypertonic solution, causing the cell membrane to pull away from the cell wall.

69
Q

What is the function of aquaporins?

A

Aquaporins are specialized channel proteins that facilitate the rapid transport of water across cell membranes.

70
Q

What is the purpose of the sodium-potassium pump?

A

The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium out of cells and potassium into cells, maintaining an electrochemical gradient across the membrane.

71
Q

What is antigenic variability?

A

Antigenic variability occurs when pathogens alter their surface antigens to evade detection by the immune system.

72
Q

What is a monoclonal antibody?

A

A monoclonal antibody is an antibody produced from a single clone of B cells, designed to target a specific antigen.

73
Q

What is the purpose of vaccinations?

A

Vaccinations introduce weakened or inactive forms of pathogens to stimulate the production of memory cells without causing disease.

74
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

Herd immunity occurs when a high percentage of a population is vaccinated, reducing the spread of disease and protecting unvaccinated individuals.

75
Q

What is the purpose of a control in an experiment?

A

A control is used as a standard for comparison to check the reliability and validity of the results.

76
Q

What are the main stages of the cell cycle?

A

The main stages of the cell cycle are interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.

77
Q

What is the role of the G1 phase in the cell cycle?

A

In the G1 phase, the cell grows and synthesizes proteins and organelles needed for DNA replication.

78
Q

What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?

A

During the S phase, DNA replication occurs, resulting in each chromosome consisting of two sister chromatids.

79
Q

What is the function of the G2 phase in the cell cycle?

A

In the G2 phase, the cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis by synthesizing proteins needed for chromosome movement.

80
Q

What is the role of spindle fibers during mitosis?

A

Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of chromosomes and help separate the sister chromatids during cell division.

81
Q

How do cancer cells differ from normal cells?

A

Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, bypassing the normal checkpoints of the cell cycle and forming tumors.

82
Q

What is the significance of programmed cell death (apoptosis)?

A

Apoptosis eliminates damaged or unnecessary cells in a controlled manner to maintain tissue health.

83
Q

What is the role of the centromere in cell division?

A

The centromere holds sister chromatids together and attaches them to spindle fibers during mitosis.

84
Q

How does binary fission occur in bacteria?

A

In binary fission, the bacterial DNA replicates, the cell elongates, and the plasma membrane pinches in to divide the cell into two daughter cells.

85
Q

What is the function of telomerase?

A

Telomerase is an enzyme that extends the telomeres at the ends of chromosomes, allowing cells to divide without losing essential DNA.

86
Q

What are telomeres and their function?

A

Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes that protect the genetic material from degradation during replication.

87
Q

What is a stem cell?

A

A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell capable of dividing and giving rise to specialized cells for tissue growth and repair.

88
Q

What is differentiation in cells?

A

Differentiation is the process by which a stem cell becomes specialized to perform a specific function.

89
Q

How are tissues formed in multicellular organisms?

A

Tissues are formed by the aggregation of similar specialized cells that perform a common function.

90
Q

What is the role of epithelial tissue?

A

Epithelial tissue forms protective layers that cover the surfaces of organs and structures in the body.

91
Q

What is the function of connective tissue?

A

Connective tissue provides support, binds structures together, and helps transport nutrients.

92
Q

What are the two main types of immune responses?

A

The two main immune responses are the non-specific (innate) and specific (adaptive) immune responses.

93
Q

What are antigens?

A

Antigens are foreign molecules that trigger an immune response by stimulating the production of antibodies.

94
Q

What are antibodies?

A

Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells that bind specifically to antigens, marking them for destruction by the immune system.

95
Q

What are B memory cells?

A

B memory cells are long-lived cells that remember a specific pathogen and enable a faster immune response upon subsequent exposure.

96
Q

How does the body protect itself from pathogens in the non-specific immune response?

A

The non-specific immune response includes barriers like skin, mucus, and phagocytic cells like neutrophils and macrophages.

97
Q

What is the role of T helper cells in the immune response?

A

T helper cells activate B cells to produce antibodies and help activate cytotoxic T cells to kill infected cells.

98
Q

What is the role of cytotoxic T cells?

A

Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells by releasing perforin, which creates pores in the target cell membrane.

99
Q

What is the purpose of a vaccine booster shot?

A

A vaccine booster shot stimulates the immune system to produce more memory cells, enhancing long-term immunity.

100
Q

What is clonal selection in the immune response?

A

Clonal selection is the process where a specific B or T cell is activated by an antigen and proliferates to form clones of identical cells.

101
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Passive immunity occurs when antibodies are transferred from one individual to another, such as from mother to baby or via antibody injections.

102
Q

How does active immunity differ from passive immunity?

A

Active immunity involves the body’s own immune response to an antigen, while passive immunity involves receiving antibodies from another source.

103
Q

What is the ELISA test used for?

A

The ELISA test detects the presence of specific antigens or antibodies in a sample, often used for disease diagnosis.

104
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies work in cancer treatment?

A

Monoclonal antibodies can be designed to target cancer cells specifically, delivering drugs or stimulating the immune system to attack the cancer.

105
Q

What is HIV and how does it affect the immune system?

A

HIV is a virus that infects and destroys helper T cells, weakening the immune system and leading to AIDS.

106
Q

How does reverse transcriptase function in HIV?

A

Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme in HIV that converts its RNA genome into DNA, allowing it to integrate into the host cell’s DNA.

107
Q

How does the immune system respond to a viral infection?

A

The immune system produces antibodies to neutralize the virus and cytotoxic T cells to destroy infected cells.

108
Q

Why are antibiotics ineffective against viruses?

A

Antibiotics target bacterial cell structures like the cell wall, which viruses lack, making them ineffective against viral infections.

109
Q

What are the differences between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

Innate immunity provides immediate, non-specific defense, while adaptive immunity targets specific pathogens and provides long-lasting protection.

110
Q

What are phagocytes and their role?

A

Phagocytes, such as macrophages, engulf and digest pathogens as part of the body’s non-specific immune defense.

111
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Cytokines are signaling proteins released by immune cells that regulate inflammation, immune responses, and cell communication.

112
Q

What is the primary function of lymphocytes?

A

Lymphocytes (B and T cells) are responsible for recognizing specific antigens and coordinating the adaptive immune response.

113
Q

What are the stages of the humoral immune response?

A

The stages are: antigen recognition, clonal selection, production of antibodies by plasma cells, and formation of memory B cells.

114
Q

What is the function of histamines in the immune response?

A

Histamines are chemicals released by mast cells that increase blood flow and permeability during inflammation.

115
Q

How do vaccines stimulate immunity?

A

Vaccines introduce a weakened or inactive pathogen, prompting the immune system to produce antibodies and memory cells without causing illness.

116
Q

What is the role of helper T cells in HIV infection?

A

Helper T cells coordinate the immune response by activating other immune cells, but HIV specifically targets and destroys these cells.

117
Q

What is meant by ‘antigen-antibody complex’?

A

An antigen-antibody complex forms when an antibody binds to its specific antigen, marking it for destruction by immune cells.

118
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies work in diagnostic tests?

A

In diagnostic tests, monoclonal antibodies bind to specific antigens, indicating the presence of a substance, such as in pregnancy or COVID-19 tests.

119
Q

Why do some pathogens change their surface antigens?

A

Pathogens may change surface antigens (antigenic variation) to avoid detection by the host’s immune system.

120
Q

What is the role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?

A

rRNA forms part of the ribosome and catalyzes the assembly of amino acids into protein chains during translation.

121
Q

What is the significance of circular DNA in prokaryotes?

A

Circular DNA in prokaryotes contains the essential genetic information needed for the cell’s functions and reproduction.

122
Q

What are plasmids in bacterial cells?

A

Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that replicate independently of chromosomal DNA and often carry genes for antibiotic resistance.

123
Q

What is the function of a bacterial capsule?

A

The capsule protects bacteria from phagocytosis and desiccation, and it can help the bacteria adhere to surfaces.

124
Q

What are pili in bacterial cells?

A

Pili are hair-like structures that help bacteria attach to surfaces and facilitate conjugation (DNA transfer between cells).

125
Q

What are the key features of a virus?

A

Viruses have a protein coat (capsid), genetic material (DNA or RNA), and sometimes an envelope derived from the host cell membrane.

126
Q

How do viruses replicate inside host cells?

A

Viruses attach to host cells, inject their genetic material, and hijack the host’s machinery to replicate and assemble new virus particles.

127
Q

What is the role of reverse transcriptase in retroviruses?

A

Reverse transcriptase converts viral RNA into DNA, allowing the retrovirus to integrate into the host genome.

128
Q

What is the function of the Golgi vesicles?

A

Golgi vesicles transport modified proteins and lipids from the Golgi apparatus to their final destination, either inside or outside the cell.

129
Q

What is the structure of the fluid mosaic model?

A

The fluid mosaic model describes a membrane as a flexible phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, allowing for fluidity and varied functions.

130
Q

How does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity?

A

Cholesterol decreases membrane fluidity by restricting the movement of phospholipids, providing stability especially in animal cells.

131
Q

What is simple diffusion?

A

Simple diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration across a membrane without energy.

132
Q

What factors affect the rate of diffusion?

A

The rate of diffusion is influenced by temperature, concentration gradient, surface area, distance, and the size of molecules.

133
Q

How do carrier proteins function in facilitated diffusion?

A

Carrier proteins bind to specific molecules, change shape, and transport the molecules across the membrane down their concentration gradient.

134
Q

What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?

A

Endocytosis involves the uptake of substances into the cell via vesicles, while exocytosis involves the release of substances out of the cell.

135
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis where large particles, such as pathogens or debris, are engulfed by the cell and enclosed in a vesicle.

136
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

Pinocytosis is the process by which cells engulf extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes into vesicles, commonly referred to as ‘cell drinking.’

137
Q

How does the sodium-potassium pump work?

A

The sodium-potassium pump actively transports sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, using ATP to maintain a concentration gradient.

138
Q

What is the purpose of osmosis in cells?

A

Osmosis regulates water movement, maintaining cell turgidity, or preventing excessive swelling or shrinking due to changes in water potential.

139
Q

What is an isotonic solution?

A

An isotonic solution has the same water potential as the cell, so no net movement of water occurs across the cell membrane.

140
Q

What is a hypertonic solution?

A

A hypertonic solution has a lower water potential (more solutes) than the cell, causing water to move out of the cell, leading to shrinkage.

141
Q

What is a hypotonic solution?

A

A hypotonic solution has a higher water potential (fewer solutes) than the cell, causing water to move into the cell, leading to swelling or bursting.

142
Q

How do aquaporins function in osmosis?

A

Aquaporins are specialized membrane channels that facilitate the rapid movement of water molecules across the cell membrane.

143
Q

What is the role of the cell wall in osmoregulation in plants?

A

The cell wall provides structural support, preventing plant cells from bursting in hypotonic environments by maintaining turgor pressure.

144
Q

What is water potential?

A

Water potential is the measure of the tendency of water to move from one area to another, influenced by solute concentration and pressure.

145
Q

What is plasmolysis in plant cells?

A

Plasmolysis occurs when plant cells lose water in a hypertonic solution, causing the cell membrane to pull away from the cell wall.

146
Q

What is meant by incipient plasmolysis?

A

Incipient plasmolysis refers to the point at which the cell membrane just begins to pull away from the cell wall due to water loss.

147
Q

What are glycoproteins and their function in membranes?

A

Glycoproteins are proteins with attached carbohydrate chains that play roles in cell recognition, adhesion, and immune responses.

148
Q

What are glycolipids and their function in membranes?

A

Glycolipids are lipids with attached carbohydrate chains that help maintain membrane stability and facilitate cell-to-cell communication.

149
Q

What is the role of membrane receptors?

A

Membrane receptors detect external signals (like hormones or neurotransmitters) and initiate a cellular response.

150
Q

How do pathogens evade the immune system through antigenic variation?

A

Pathogens change their surface antigens to avoid recognition by the host immune system, making it harder for memory cells to respond.

151
Q

What is the purpose of memory cells in the immune system?

A

Memory cells ‘remember’ a specific pathogen, enabling a faster and stronger immune response upon re-infection.

152
Q

What are cytokines and their role in the immune response?

A

Cytokines are signaling proteins that regulate immune responses, inflammation, and communication between immune cells.

153
Q

What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

Innate immunity is the body’s immediate, non-specific defense against pathogens, while adaptive immunity is a targeted, specific response involving B and T cells.

154
Q

What is the function of antigen-presenting cells (APCs)?

A

APCs, such as macrophages, display foreign antigens on their surface to activate T cells in the adaptive immune response.

155
Q

What is the structure of an antibody?

A

An antibody is Y-shaped with two antigen-binding sites, a variable region that binds to a specific antigen, and a constant region that interacts with immune cells.

156
Q

What is the role of cytotoxic T cells in immune defense?

A

Cytotoxic T cells destroy infected or abnormal cells by releasing perforin, which creates pores in the target cell membrane, leading to cell death.

157
Q

How does the body respond to a bacterial infection?

A

The immune system responds by recognizing bacterial antigens, activating B cells to produce antibodies, and triggering phagocytosis by macrophages.

158
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies produced by a single clone of B cells, designed to target a specific antigen for medical or diagnostic use.

159
Q

What is the ELISA test used for in diagnostics?

A

The ELISA test detects the presence of specific antigens or antibodies in a sample, commonly used for diagnosing infections and immune responses.

160
Q

How do vaccinations help prevent disease?

A

Vaccinations introduce antigens from weakened or dead pathogens, stimulating the immune system to produce memory cells for long-term immunity.

161
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

Herd immunity occurs when a large proportion of a population is immune to a disease, reducing its spread and protecting unvaccinated individuals.

162
Q

What is the role of helper T cells in the immune response?

A

Helper T cells activate B cells to produce antibodies and cytotoxic T cells to attack infected cells, coordinating the immune response.

163
Q

What is the difference between passive and active immunity?

A

Passive immunity involves receiving antibodies from an external source, while active immunity involves the body’s own production of antibodies in response to an antigen.

164
Q

What are the ethical concerns surrounding the use of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Ethical concerns include the use of animals in their production, the potential for severe side effects in patients, and the high cost of treatment.

A Level Biology (10 decks)

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