CELLS Flashcards
what are all living organisms made of
cells that have the same basic features in common
what feature about cells suggests that all living things have evolved from the same common ancestor
the fact that cells have the same basic feature in common
what are the 2 main types of organisms
eukaryotes and prokaryotes
what are prokaryotic organisms made of
prokaryotic cells
are prokaryotic organisms multi or uni cellular
unicellular - single celled organisms
what are eukaryotic organisms made of
eukaryotic cells
what do both types of cells contain
organelles
compare eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells in terms of complexity
eukaryotic cells are more complex
prokaryotes are more small and simple
describe organelles
parts of cells
each organelle has a specific function
what type of microscope can you use to see an organelle and its internal structure
electron microscope
describe eukaryotic cells
bit more complicated than prokaryotic cells
have more organelles than prokaryotic cells
give 4 examples of eukaryotic cells
- animal cells
- plant cells
- algal cells
- fungal cells
name all the organelles found in an animal cell (EUKARYOTIC)
cell surface plasma membrane
ribosome
cytoplasm
mitochondria
nucleus
nucleolus
nuclear envelope
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lysosome
golgi apparatus
name the organelles in a plant cell
all the same as animal cell, expect they have 3 extra which is written down below
cellulose cell wall with plasmodesmata - channels for the exchange of substances between adjacent cells
vacuole - fluid filled compartment
chloroplasts - organelles involved in photosynthesis
therefore all the organelles in a plant cell are :
cell surface plasma membrane
ribosome
cytoplasm
mitochondria
cellulose cell wall with plasmodesmata
vacuole
chloroplasts
nucleus
nucleolus
nuclear envelope
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lysosome
golgi apparatus
name the organelles in an algal cell
cell surface plasma membrane
ribosome
cytoplasm
mitochondria
cellulose cell wall
vacuole
chloroplasts
nucleus
nucleolus
nuclear envelope
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
golgi apparatus
name the differences/potential differences between a plant cell and an algal cell
algae can be unicellular, chlorella, or multicellular, seaweed
shape and size of chloroplasts are different in algal cells, compared to plant cells, ex an algal cell can have 1 large chloroplast compared to many small chloroplasts in a plant cell
name the organelles in fungal cells
cell surface plasma membrane
ribosome
cytoplasm
mitochondria
chitin cell wall
vacuole
nucleus
nucleolus
nuclear envelope
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
golgi apparatus
describe the appearance and function of the cell surface membrane
appearance
- inside the cell wall of other cells, mainly made of lipids and protein
function
- regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell
- has receptor molecules on it which allow it to respond to chemicals like hormones
describe the appearance and function of the nucleus
appearance
- large organelle
- surrounded by a nuclear envelope which contains many pores
- contains chromosomes
- contains a nucleolus
function
- controls cells activities by controlling the transcription of the DNA
- DNA contains instructions to make proteins
- pores in the nucleus allow substances, like RNA to move between the nucleus and cytoplasm
- nucleolus makes ribosomes
describe the appearance and function of the mitochondrion
appearance
- oval shaped
- double membrane
- inner membrane folded to form cristae
- inside contains the matrix which contains enzymes involved in respiration
function
- site of aerobic respiration, which produces ATP
- found in large numbers in cells which are very active and require lots of energy, ex - sperm cells
describe the appearance and function of the chloroplast
appearance
- small + flat
- found in plant and algal cells
- surrounded by a double membrane
- has membranes inside called thylakoid membranes
- thylakoid membranes are stacked to form grana
- grant are linked together by lamella, which are thin flat pieces of thylakoid membrane
function
- site of photosynthesis
- some parts of photosynthesis are in the grana and others in the stroma
describe the appearance and function of the golgi apparatus
appearance
- group of fluid filled membrane bound flattened sacs
- vesicles seen at the edges of the sacs
function
- processes + packages new lipids and proteins
- makes lysosomes
describe the appearance and function of the golgi vesicle
appearance
- small fluid filled sac in cytoplasm
- surrounded by membrane and produced by golgi apparatus
function
- stores lipids and proteins made by golgi apparatus and transports them out the cell VIA cell surface membrane
describe the appearance and function of the lysosome
appearance
- round organelle
- surrounded by a membrane
- no clear internal structure
function
- contains hydrolytic enzymes, kept separate from the cytoplasm by surrounding membrane
- enzymes can be used to digest invading cells or break down worn out components of the cell
describe the appearance and function of the ribosome
appearance
- very small organelle
- floats free in cytoplasm OR attached to RER
- made of proteins and RNA
- NOT surrounded by membrane
function
- site of protein synthesis
describe the appearance and function of the RER
appearance
- system of membranes enclosing a fluid filled space
- surface is covered with ribosomes
function
- folds and processes proteins that have been made at ribosomes
describe the appearance and function of the SER
appearance
- similar to RER, but no ribosomes
function
- synethesises and processes lipids
describe the appearance and function of the cell wall
appearance
- rigid structure that surrounds cells in plants, algae and fungi
- in plants and algae its mainly made of cellulose
- in fungi its made of chitin
function
- supports cells and prevents them from changing shape
describe the appearance and function of the cell vacuole
appearance
- membrane bound organelle
- found in cytoplasm
- contains cell sap, a weak solution of sugar and salts
- membrane surrounding it is called a ‘tonoplast’
function
- helps to maintain pressure inside cell
- keeps cell rigid
- stops plant from wilting
- involved in isolating unwanted chemicals in the cell
what process do cells go through to be able to carry out their specific functions
specialisation
what feature of the cell helps it carry out its function
its shape
describe how epithelial cells are specialised to carry out their functions
in the small intestine and are adapted to absorb food efficently
- walls of small intestine have lots of villi (finger like projections) = increase SA for absorption
- villi have folds called microvilli = further increase SA
- lots of mitochondria = provide energy for transport of digested food molecules into cell
describe how red blood cells are specialised to carry out their functions
adapted to carry oxygen around the body
no nucleus = more room for haemoglobin, which carries oxygen
describe how sperm cells are specialised to carry out their functions
have to propel themselves to an egg
have lots of mitochondria to provide energy to travel
describe cell organisation
specialised cells -> tissues
tissues -> organs
organs -> organ system
tissues = group of cells working together to perform a certain function
describe cell organisation in epithelial cells
epithelial cells -> epithelial tissue
epithelial tissue, muscular tissue and glandular tissue work together to form the stomach, which is an organ
stomach is part of the digestive system - organ system made of all organs involved in digestion and absorption of food, includes small and large intestine and liver
are prokaryotes single or multi cellular
they are single celled organisms
give an example of a prokaryote
bacteria like E. Coli
what is the cell wall of a prokaryote made of
murein
glycoprotein, protein with carbohydrate attached
describe the appearance and function of the flagellum
appearance
- long hair like structure
- not all prokaryotes have one, some have multiple
function
- makes prokaryotes move
describe the appearance and function of the nucleus in a prokaryote
- dont have a nucleus
- DNA floats free in the cytoplasm
- circular DNA presents as one long coiled up strand
- DNA not attached to any histone proteins
describe the appearance and function of the plasmids in a prokaryote
appearance
- small loops of DNA that aren’t part of the main circular DNA molecule
- not present in all prokaryotes, while some have multiple
function
- contain genes for things like antibiotic resistance
- can be passed between prokaryotes
describe the appearance and function of the slime capsule
appearance
- capsule around the cell wall
- made of secreted slime
- only some have it
function
- helps to protect the bacteria from attack by cells of immune system
describe the size of prokaryotes
- extremely small
- less than 2 hm in diameter - 0.002 mm
- eukaryotes can be up to 50x bigger
how do prokaryotes replicate
binary fission
cell replicates and makes 2 copies of its genetic material, before splitting into 2 daughter cells
describe the process of binary fission
- circular DNA and plasmid/s replicate
- main DNA loop only replicated once
- plasmid/s can be replicated many times
- cells gets bigger
- DNA moved to opposite poles/ends of the cell
- cytoplasm begins to divide
- new cell walls begin to form
- cytoplasm divides and 2 daughter cells are produced
- each daughter cell has 1 copy of the circular DNA but a variable number of copies of the plasmids
describe viruses
- aceullar = not cells
- nucleic acids surrounded by protein
- not alive
give examples of viruses
HIV, causes AIDS
influenza, causes the flu
rhinoviruses, causes colds
how do viruses enter the body
invade and reproduce inside the cells of organisms
the cells they invade and reproduce in are called HOST CELLS
name the features of the basic structure of a virus
core of genetic material, either DNA or RNA (the nucleic acid)
attachment proteins
capsid/protein coat
describe the size of a virus
even smaller than bacteria
0.1 hm across
what is the calculation for magnification
magnification = size of image / size of real object
what is resolution
how well a microscope can distinguish between 2 points that are close together
describe the functions of a light microscope
- use light to form an image
- max resolution : 0.2 hm
- cant use a microscope to see organelles smaller than 0.2 hm : ribosomes, both ER, lysosomes
- may be able to see mitochondria, but not in perfect detail
- can see nucleus
- max magnification : x1500
describe the functions of an electron microscope
- use electrons to form an image
- have a higher resolution than optical microscopes, therefore gives a more detailed image
- max resolution : 0.0002 hm
- max magnification : x1500000
- produce black and white images, but this can be turned into coloured by a computer
what are the 2 types of electron microscope
transmission electron microscope - TEM
scanning electron microscope - SEM
describe the function of TEM’s
- use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons, which is then transmitted through the specimen
- denser parts of the specimen absorb more electrons and therefore those parts look darker on the image produced
describe the function of SEM’s
- scan a beam of electrons across the specimen
- knocks off electrons from the specimen, these are gathered in a cathode ray tube to form an image
name the pros of using a TEM
- gives high resolution images, so shows small objects
name the cons of using a TEM
- can be only used on thin specimens
- can only be used on non-living specimens
name the pros of using a SEM
- can be used on thick specimens
- can produce 3D images
name the cons of using a SEM
- gives lower resolution than images from TEMs
- can only be used on non-living specimens
name the steps involved in preparing a microscope slide
- start by pipetting a small drop of water onto the centre of the slide
- use tweezers to place a thin section of the specimen on top of the water drop
- add a drop of stain, used to highlight objects in a cell
- add the cover slip, do this by standing the slip upright on the side next to the water droplet and then carefully tilt and lower it so it covers the specimen
- when trying to add the cover slip, try not to get any air bubbles underneath as they obstruct the view of the specimen
give examples of stains and what objects they highlight
eosin - makes cytoplasm show
iodine in potassium iodide solution - used to stain starch grains in plant cells
describe microscope artefacts
they are things that you can see down at the microscope, they are not a part of the cell/speciment looked at
usually made during the preparation of the specimen and should not be there
give examples of microscope artefacts
- dust
- air bubbles
- fingerprints
- inaccuracies caused by squashing and staining the sample
which microscope are artefacts most common in and why
electron micrographs
because specimens need a lot of preparation before you can view them under a microscope
how did the first scientists differentiate between artefacts and organelles, using electron microscopes
by repeatedly preparing specimens in different ways
if an object could be seen with one preparation technique, but not another, it was more likely to be an artefact than an organelle
describe the homogenisation step of cell fractionation
- homogenisation = breaking up the cells
- can be done in different ways, ex - vibrating the cells OR grinding up the cells in a blender
- this breaks up the plasma membrane and releases the organelles into solution
- the solution must be kept ice cold : reduces activity of enzymes which break down organelles
- solution must be isotonic : should have the same concentration of chemicals as the cells being broken down BECAUSE it prevents damage to organelles through osmosis
- solution must be buffered : to maintain pH