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Cells Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the function of the cell membrane?

A

Controls the movement of molecules in and out of the cell. It is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE.

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2
Q

What is the function of the cytoplasm?

A

Chemical reactions occur here.

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3
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

Controls the centre of the cell, contains genetic information and DNA.

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4
Q

What is the function of chromosomes?

A

Contains DNA codes for characteristics.

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5
Q

What is the function of the nuclear membrane?

A

Boundary of nucleus.

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6
Q

What is the function of the mitochondria?

A

Where chemical reactions of respiration take place which allows cells to make energy.

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7
Q

What is the function of the permanent vacuole?

A

Contains cell sap and when full pushes against the cell wall giving the plant support through rigid pressures.

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8
Q

What is the function of the cellulose cell wall?

A

Provides support for plant.

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9
Q

What is the function of the chloroplasts?

A

Contains chlorophyll to trap sunlight. (only present in the green parts of leaves).

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10
Q

What cell’s cell wall is made up of murein?

A

Bacterial cells (Plant Cells’ cell walls are made up of cellulose).

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11
Q

Name 3 differences between Plant/Animal cells and Bacterial cells.

A
  1. Plasmids are present in bacterial cells.
  2. Bacterial cells have a circular chromosome while plant and animal cells have a nucleus.
  3. The cell wall is made up of murein in bacterial cells while in plant cells, their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
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12
Q

Groups of similar cells all doing the same job are known as?

A

Tissue

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13
Q

Several types of tissue that carry out a particular function is called?

A

Organ.

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14
Q

Organs that operate together to carry out a particular function is known as?

A

An organ system.

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15
Q

All the organ systems in a complex animal such as a human is known as?

A

An organism.

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16
Q

What are the three main functions of food?

A

Energy, growth and the repair and function of cells.

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17
Q

What are the three important groups of biological molecules and what three elements do they all contain?

A

Carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
They all contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
ALL PROTEINS ALSO CONTAIN THE ELEMENT NITROGEN!

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18
Q

What are the two types of carbohydrate?

A

Simple and complex.

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19
Q

What are simple carbohydrates and give some examples?

A

They are sugars.
FRUCTOSE (fruit sugar), GLUCOSE (corn sugar), SUCROSE (table sugar) and LACTOSE.

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20
Q

What are complex carbohydrates composed of?

A

They are composed of long chains of the sugars joined together.

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21
Q

What do complex carbohydrates act as?

A

A slow release energy source and they normally take much longer to digest.

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22
Q

What do plants store sugar as?

A

Starch.

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23
Q

How do animals and humans store sugar?

A

In the form of GLYCOGEN.

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24
Q

What is protein usually used for?

A

Growth and repair.

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25
Q

Where is glycogen stored?

A

In the liver.

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26
Q

Although the body uses glycogen to store sugar-what will it do if we need it?

A

It can be readily broken down if we need it.

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27
Q

Proteins are complex molecules made up of what?

A

Amino acids.

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28
Q

What happens when the proteins are digested?

A

The amino acids are absorbed into the blood and can be reassembled into the different proteins that the body needs.

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29
Q

What structural role do some proteins have?

A

Make skin and hair.

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30
Q

All enzymes are ……..?

A

Proteins.

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31
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Proteins that act as a biological catalysts that speeds up the rate of reactions.

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32
Q

What is an antibody?

A

Proteins that protect you when an unwanted substance enters your body.

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33
Q

What is haemoglobin?

A

A protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.

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34
Q

In terms of how much energy is produced, how much more energy per gram does fat provide than a carbohydrate and protein?

A

Double the energy per gram.

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35
Q

How can fats help the skin?

A

They can be stored as an insulating layer to keep us warm and protect our organs.

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36
Q

What two substances are produced when fats are produced?

A

1 GLYCEROL AND THREE FATTY ACIDS.

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37
Q

What reagent would you use to test for STARCH and what would be the colour change?

A

Iodine.
Yellow/brown to blue/black.

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38
Q

What reagent would you use to test for a SIMPLE SUGAR (eg. Glucose)?

A

Benedict’s reagent.
Blue to brick red reciprocate.

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39
Q

What reagent would you use to test for PROTEIN and what would the colour change be?

A

Biuret reagent.
Blue to purple/lilac.

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40
Q

What reagent would you use to test for FAT (LIPIDS) and what would the colour change be?

A

Ethanol.
Clear to white emulsion.

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41
Q

What is energy measured in?

A

Joules.

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42
Q

What determines how much energy food contains?

A

It depends on how much carbohydrate, fat and protein the food contains.

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43
Q

How can you find the energy content of foods?

A

Burn a piece of food and using the heat given off to heat water. The rise in temperature of the water can be used to calculate amount of energy originally in the food.

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44
Q

What calculation do you use to find how much energy is in food per gram?

A

Energy in food / J per gram = Rise in water temperature/degrees C x Volume of water/cm3 x 4.2 / mass of food burned in grams.

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45
Q

What are some reasons why not all the energy from the food is used to heat the water?

A
  1. Energy lost to surroundings.
  2. Not all of crisp was burnt.
  3. Energy lost in drips of fat.
  4. Crisp could have fallen and was not fully burned.
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46
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of reactions such as photosynthesis, respiration and digestion.

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47
Q

What is a catalyst?

A

A substance that speeds up chemical charge without being changed or consumed during the reaction.

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48
Q

Explain the ‘Lock and Key Theory’:

A

The lock and key theory means that whatever shape the substrate is (which in the case acts as the the key) must be complementary to the active site (the lock). This must mean the substrate fits exactly into the active site because enzymes are specific. If the active site is complementary to the shape of the substrate, an ‘Enzyme-Substrate Complex’ can happen. Then as a result of this, the enzyme changes the substrate into the product.

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49
Q

All reactions require a certain amount of energy to get them started. What is the name of this?

A

Activation Energy.

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50
Q

How do enzymes speed up reactions?

A

By lowering the activation energy.

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51
Q

What enzymes reacts with the substrate STARCH and what is the product?

A

Amylase and the product is glucose.

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52
Q

What is the enzyme for the substrate PROTEIN and what is the product?

A

Protease and amino acids is the product.

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53
Q

What is the substrate for the enzyme lipase and what is the product?

A

Fat (lipids) and the product is 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.

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54
Q

What are the factors that can affect Enzyme activity?

A
  • Temperature.
  • Concentration of enzymes.
  • Concentration of substrates.
  • If the active site has been damaged.
  • If an INHIBITOR is present.
55
Q

Different enzymes work best at different PH. Why?

A

They are specific and catalyse different reactions.

56
Q

If there are more enzymes…. And why?

A

The enzyme reaction will be faster. This is because there are more active sites for the substrate to attach to.

57
Q

When you initially increase the concentration of enzymes, why does the rate of activity increase?

A

More active sites.
More successful collisions.
More ES complexes.
More products formed.

58
Q

Why does the rate of enzyme activity level off?

A

Not enough substrates to bind with the extra enzymes.
SUBSTRATE IS THE LIMITING FACTOR.

59
Q

What would happen to the rate of enzyme controlled reaction if a molecule was bound to the active site?

A

The rate of reactions would decrease. Active site is blocked and the substrate cannot bind to form ES complexes: NO PRODUCTS.

60
Q

What is an inhibitor?

A

A molecule that blocks the active site but is not broken down. It will prevent the enzyme and the substrate from colliding and so will slow down the rate of reaction.

61
Q

What is the name of the enzyme that can cause blood vessels to constrict and become narrower?

A

Angiotensin Converting Enzymes (ACE).

62
Q

What is digestion?

A

The break down of large insoluble molecules to small molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.

63
Q

What is meant by the term ‘thermo-stable’?

A

They can work over a wide range of temperatures.

64
Q

What does starch agar contain?

A

Starch!

65
Q

What does the amylase in biological washing powder do with the starch?

A

Digests it.

66
Q

Why is milk agar white?

A

Because it contains the protein CASEIN.

67
Q

Where does respiration take place?

A

In the mitochondria.

68
Q

How does the body bring in a larger volume of air and increase the rate of gas exchange?

A

Through the increased depth and rate of the breathing.

69
Q

What is the ‘recovery rate’?

A

The time taken for the breathing rate to return to normal after exercise.

70
Q

What is the site of gas exchange in animals called?

A

The alveoli.

71
Q

What is diffusion?

A

The movement of molecules from an area of HIGH concentration to an area of LOW concentration.

72
Q

What are the adaptations of the alveoli for gas exchange?

A

Large surface area: Folded surfaces.
Thin walls: Reduces diffusion distance. (Capillaries are only 1 cell thick).
Permeable surfaces: Allows for easy diffusion of 02 and CO2.
Moist walls: Allows gases to dissolve in the moisture - can then pass through respiratory surfaces.
Good blood supply: Alveoli has a high concentration of oxygen - less oxygen in the blood - oxygen moves from high concentration to low concentration (into the blood) - blood in capillary is constantly transporting away the O2 to the cells.

73
Q

Name the small pores on the surface of a leaf that allows gases to enter.

A

Stomata.

74
Q

Describe the function of the intercellular air space in a leaf.

A

Allows diffusion of gases to occur.

75
Q

What are the adaptations of the leaf to allow efficient gas exchange?

A

Large surface area.
Small distance across which the exchange occurs.
Moist surface where the exchange occurs.
There is a diffusion gradient for gas exchange.

76
Q

Explain why it is necessary for the breathing rate to increase during exercise.

A

Our muscles are contracting during exercise and we need more oxygen for respiration to release energy.

77
Q

Define aerobic respiration.

A

Respiration WITH the use of oxygen.

78
Q

Define anaerobic respiration.

A

Respiration WITHOUT the use of oxygen.

79
Q

What is the word equation for AEROBIC respiration?

A

Glucose + oxygen ———> Carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

80
Q

What is the balanced chemical equation for AEROBIC respiration?

A

C6H12O6 + 602 ———> 6CO2 + 6H20 + ENERGY

81
Q

What does aerobic respiration produce?

A

More energy in small amounts.

82
Q

What does it mean by an ‘exothermic reaction’.

A

Heat energy is given out.

83
Q

In plants or fungi like yeast what is the word equation for ANAEROBIC respiration and what is this process known as?

A

Sugar (e.g glucose) ———> ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy
This process is known as alcoholic fermentation.

84
Q

In animals what is the word equation for ANAEROBIC respiration?

A

Sugar (e.g glucose) ———> lactic acid + energy

85
Q

What does ANAEROBIC respiration produce?

A

Much less energy compared to aerobic respiration.

86
Q

What are two similarities between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

A
  1. Both require glucose.
  2. Both processes produce their energy in small amounts.
87
Q

What are three differences between anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals

A
  1. In plants ethanol is produced.
  2. In animals lactic acid produced.
  3. In plants carbon dioxide is produced.
88
Q

In an experiment demonstrating anaerobic respiration in yeast: what is the purpose of the layer of oil in the test tube?

A

It prevents oxygen entering.

89
Q

In an experiment demonstrating anaerobic respiration in yeast: why was the glucose boiled and cooled?

A

Boiled: removes dissolved water/oxygen
Cooled: prevents enzymes in yeast becoming denatured.

90
Q

In an experiment demonstrating anaerobic respiration in yeast: what is the purpose of the limewater in the test tube?

A

To test for CO2 to prove anaerobic respiration has taken place.

91
Q

Why are leaves thin?

A

To allow cells in tissue layers below to receive light.

92
Q

Name the waxy layer on the upper surface of the leaf and describe its role.

A

Waxy cuticle: thin and transparent to allow cells to receive light.

93
Q

Which layer of the cells has the highest density of chloroplasts?

A

Palisade mesophyll.

94
Q

What process causes gases to move through the intercellular air space and through the stomata?

A

Diffusion.

95
Q

In some plants stomata can occur on both the upper and lower leaf surface but in hot environments they are mainly found on the lower surface - can you suggest why?

A

Prevent too much water being lost.

96
Q

Water lillies have leaves which float on the surface of the water. Suggest why they only have stomata on their upper leaf surfaces?

A

If stomata were present on lower surface they would be blocked by the water and when open, water would enter the leaf cause it to sink.

97
Q

What typer of reaction is photosynthesis and what does this mean?

A

Endothermic reaction.
When energy is taken in from its surroundings.

98
Q

Name two uses of the glucose that is produced in photosynthesis.

A
  1. Conversion to starch for storage.
  2. Used as a fuel for respiration to provide energy.
99
Q

Why is photosynthesis essential for all organisms?

A
  • Provides us with oxygen for respiration.
  • Used as a fuel for respiration to provide energy.
100
Q

In order to photosynthesize what conditions must be available to a plant?

A
  1. A supply of water.
  2. A supply of carbon dioxide.
  3. Sunlight.
  4. The correct temperature.
  5. Chlorophyll.
101
Q

Why does a plant need a supply of water in order to photosynthesize?

A

This is provided in terrestrial plants by absorption from the soil through ROOT HAIR CELLS and transports through the vascular tissue.

102
Q

What is the name of the vascular tissue that transports water?

A

The xylem tissue.

103
Q

Why does a plant need a supply of carbon dioxide in order to photosynthesize?

A

Atmospheric air contains a small portion of carbon dioxide (about 0.03%). This diffuses into the leaves through air pores or the stomata.

104
Q

Why does a plant need sunlight in order to photosynthesize?

A

Photosynthesis, can only occur when light is available. The rate of its process is at its peak when natural light is at its peak in the early afternoon.

105
Q

Why does a plant need the correct temperature in order to photosynthesize?

A

Temperature too low - enzymes will not have enough kinetic energy so rate of photosynthesis is low.

Temperature too high - enzymes are denatured and rate of reaction decreases.

ENZYMES NEED OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE.

106
Q

What is ‘De-starching’?

A

The process by which the starch reserves in a plant are depleted by depriving the plant of either light or carbon dioxide.

107
Q

Can you explain why after de-starching a plant, it is necessary to test one of the leaves for the presence of starch BEFORE starting the experiment?

A

Ensures there is no starch present in the leaf so that when we start the experiment, we know that any starch present at the end of the experiment was made DURING the experiment as a result of the environmental conditions.

108
Q

Why does a plant need chlorophyll in order to photosynthesize?

A

Its function is to trap light energy and convert it into food energy.

109
Q

What is the name given to a leaf with both white and green parts?

A

VARIEGATED.

110
Q

All plants that photosynthesize produce ……?

A

Oxygen.

111
Q

How do you test for oxygen?

A

Oxygen gas will relight a glowing splint if the splint is plunged into it.

112
Q

What is the symbol for SODIUM HYDROXIDE?

A

NaOH.

113
Q

How could you measure the rate of photosynthesis?

A

Measure the oxygen released from an aquatic plant such as Elodea.

114
Q

List two ways how you calculate the rate of photosynthesis?

A

By counting the amount of bubbles of oxygen released in one minute.
OR
Measure the volume of oxygen produced after 5 minutes.

115
Q

What effect would moving a lamp further away from the beaker have on the rate of photosynthesis?

A

The light intensity decreases.
Photosynthesis rate slows down.

116
Q

Why is counting bubbles not an accurate way of measuring the volume of oxygen produced?

A

It could lead to human error if you miscalculate the bubbles.

117
Q

Suggest why it is necessary to wait for a set period of time each time the lamp has been moved before taking measurements?

A

So the plant has time to adjust to the surroundings.

118
Q

What is ‘The Law of Limiting Factors’?

A

The factor that is in the shortest supply will be the one which will limit the rate.
PREVENTS PHOTOSYNTHESIS HAPPENING AT MAX RATE.

119
Q

What are the three main factors most likely to limit photosynthesis?

A

Carbon dioxide concentration.
Temperature.
Light intensity.

120
Q

When do living things such as plants and animals respire?

A

All the time.

121
Q

What is the word equation for respiration?

A

Oxygen + glucose ———> carbon dioxide + water + energy.

122
Q

What is the useful product of respiration?

A

Energy.

123
Q

What are the waste products of respiration?

A

Carbon dioxide and water.
THESE ARE USED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS!!!

124
Q

When does photosynthesis happen?

A

Only during the day.

125
Q

What happens at night with regards to respiration and photosynthesis ans what does this mean?

A

Respiration will be the only process involving gas exchange taking place.
Therefore, at night, MORE carbon dioxide will be PRODUCED than is being USED by the plant.

126
Q

Why is it a good idea to remove plants from hospital wards at night?

A

More CO2 is produced than used as a plant is only respiring.

127
Q

What happens during the day in regards to photosynthesis and respiration and what does this mean?

A

During the day, BOTH processes will take place. When the light intensity is very high, the rate of photosynthesis will EXCEED the rate of respiration.
When this happens the plant will use up any of the carbon dioxide produced in respiration and will need even more for the process for photosynthesis.
In daylight MORE CO2 is being USED in photosynthesis than PRODUCED in respiration.

128
Q

What happens at dusk and dawn in regards to the photosynthesis and respiration and what does this mean?

A

The rate of photosynthesis and photosynthesis are EQUAL. Because the oxygen produced in photosynthesis will immediately be used for respiration; and the carbon dioxide produced in respiration will be immediately used in photosynthesis.

129
Q

When the rate of photosynthesis and respiration are equal at dusk and dawn what is this called?

A

Compensation points.

130
Q

When would you use a Hydrogen carbonate indicator?

A

To show changes in the level of CO2.

131
Q

What percentage is the concentration of Carbon dioxide in the air we breath?

A

0.03%

132
Q

When using the Hydrogen carbonate indicator, what colour would it be at atmospheric CO2 level?

A

Red.

133
Q

When using the Hydrogen carbonate indicator, what colour would it be at an increased CO2 level?

A

Yellow.

134
Q

When using the Hydrogen carbonate indicator, what colour would it be at a reduced CO2 level?

A

Purple.

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