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Pathophysiology I > Cell Biology > Flashcards

Cell Biology Flashcards

1
Q

what are cells? how many? what type?

A 
smallest functional unit of organization
35-40 trillion on average
human cells are eukaryotic
each suited for specific purpose 
many types, combine to form tissues
structure & organelle composition suit cell function
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2
Q

eukaryotic

A

organized nucleus with membrane surrounding it along with several other membrane-bound organelles

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3
Q

plasma membrane function

A

separates inside from outside of cell

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4
Q

what is most abundant molecule in body?

A

water

most of water in cell membrane 2/3, 1/3 is extracelullar

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5
Q

amount of body water in intracellular compartment

A

inside plasma membrane

2/3

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6
Q

amount of body water in extracellular compartment, breakdown of two sections

A

extracellular compartment 1/3 body water
tissue fluid- interstitial fluid ISF, blood plasma
out of tissue fluid, 3/4 is ISF, 1/4 is in blood vessels

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7
Q

difference in ICF and ECF

A

ICF-higher in proteins, lower in sodium, higher in potassium

ECF-lower proteins, higher sodium, lower potassium

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8
Q

what is ISF similar to? why?

A

plasma

boundary between two spaces is not very selective

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9
Q

nucleus

A

stores cell’s DNA

controls cell growth and reproduction

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10
Q

mitochondria

A

perform cellular respiration

“powerhouse of cell”

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11
Q

ribosomes

A

produce proteins

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12
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

synthesis, folding, modification, transport of proteins

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13
Q

golgi apparatus

A

process and package macromolecules (proteins, lipids)
transport lipids
create lysosomes

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14
Q

lysosomes

A

stomach of cell

contain digestive enzymes and digest worn out organelles, food particles, engulfed viruses or bacteria

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15
Q

peroxisomes

A

break down fatty acids

transfer hydrogen

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16
Q

proteasomes

A

digest proteins by proteolysis

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17
Q

cytoskeleton

A

gives a cell its shape, offers support, and facilitates movement through three main components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

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18
Q

three compartments of cytoskeleton

A

microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules

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19
Q

what is plasma membrane made of

A

phosopholipid bilayer with integral and peripheral proteins

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20
Q

what is plasma membrane barrier to? type of permeability?

A

water soluble molecules

selectively permeable

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21
Q

functions of proteins in plasma membrane

A 
receptors-ligands to attach to
channels/carriers-allow for water soluble molecules to move inside cell
enzymes-catabolize chemical reactions
anchors-for cytoskeleton
recognition (antigens)-markers
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22
Q

function of cholesterol in plasma membrane

A

provides fluidity for proteins

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23
Q

structure of phospholipids in PM

A

glycerol head-hydrophilic

fatty acid tails-hydrophobic

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24
Q

functions of plasma membrane receptors

A

bind specific extracellular molecules

elicit changes in cell activity via signal transduction pathways

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25
Q

types of plasma membrane receptors that bind specific extracellular molecules

A

first messengers:
hormones
growth factors
neurotransmitters

these are signaling molecules that tells a cell to do something (speed up, slow down)

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26
Q

types of plasma membrane receptors that elicit changes in cell activity via signal transduction pathways

A

g-proteins
enzymes
ion channels

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27
Q

signal transduction pathway

A

extracellular messenger binds
intracellular machinery process started
extracellular message transduced inside cell

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28
Q

how does a water soluble signal exert its effects when it cannot get into cell?

A

signal transduction pathways

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29
Q

g-protein linked receptors

A

receptor binds to g protein that is linked to a guanine based nucleotide
g protein changes and becomes activated, leads to increase in second messenger-cAMP
second messenger leads to cell response (cAMP activates enzyme through kinases)
opens ion channels
target cell response

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30
Q

what is the most common signal transduction pathway?

A

g protein linked receptors

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31
Q

g protein linked receptors

what causes the g protein to become activated?

A

first messenger

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32
Q

g protein linked receptors

what happens when the g protein is activated?

A

enzyme catalyzes ATP to cAMP

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33
Q

g protein linked receptors

what is the second messenger?

A

cAMP

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34
Q

kinases

A

add phosphate group on

phosphorylate proteins and change their activity

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35
Q

enzyme-linked receptors

A

receptor has intrinsic activity or linked to enzyme

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36
Q

what do enzyme-linked receptors do?

A

convert extracellular signal to internal response

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37
Q

enzyme-linked receptors

most frequent enzyme

A

tyrosine kinase

phosphorylates intracellular proteins

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38
Q

what utilizes enzyme-linked receptors?

A

growth factors

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39
Q

enzyme-linked receptors important in what type of mechanism?

A

tumorigenesis

multiple myeloma-mutation in enzyme constitutively turned on, tyrosine kinase still active, overgrowth of B cells

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40
Q

enzyme-linked receptors

nerve growth factor

A

receptor intrinsically has kinase activity
gh binds, starts pathway
tyrosine phosphorylation changes activity of protein

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41
Q

ion-channel-linked receptors

A

receptor acts as a gated channel for ion flow across membrane

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42
Q

ion-channel-linked receptors

what happens with ligand binds?

A

channel is transiently opened, allowing ion flow

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43
Q

ion-channel-linked receptors

mechanism

A

convert extracellular signal to internal response

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44
Q

ion-channel-linked receptors what is this involved in?

A

neuron conduction & muscle contraction

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45
Q

ion

A

atom that has gained or lost electrons, take on electrical charge as a result

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46
Q

what can freely pass through plasma membrane?

A

lipid-soluble molecules

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47
Q

two types of transport-how do water soluble molecules get inside cell?

A

passive

active

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48
Q

passive transport

A

rely on gradients, don’t require energy

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49
Q

active transport

A

transport molecules against gradients, require energy

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50
Q

examples of passive transport

A

diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion

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51
Q

examples of vesicular transport

A

endocytosis

exocytosis

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52
Q

charges of cell

A

inside more negatively charged

outside more positively charged

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53
Q

gradient for sodium in cell

A

outside higher

inside lower

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54
Q

gradient for potassium in cell

A

inside higher

outside lower

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55
Q

diffusion

A

movement of molecules across membrane from high to low concentration

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56
Q

when does diffusion stop?

A

when concentration on both sides is equal

no net movement

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57
Q

what utilizes diffusion?

A

lipid soluble molecules

steroids, thyroid hormones, gases, alcohol

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58
Q

what molecules use diffusion through nonspecific protein channels?

A

uncharged small water-soluble molecules

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59
Q

what accelerates diffusion?

A

larger gradients

heat

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60
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water towards higher solute concentration

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61
Q

what binds water in the body?

A 
sodium
glucose
urea
proteins
bc of negative charge
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62
Q

wherever _______ goes, water always follows

A

sodium
glucose
urea
proteins

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63
Q

isotonic

A

does not cause osmotic flow of water into or out of a cell

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64
Q

hypotonic

A

less solutes causes osmotic flow of water into cell

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65
Q

hypertonic

A

more solutes causes osmotic flow of water out of cell, crenation

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66
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids)
does not require output of energy

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67
Q

steps for facilitated diffusion

A

molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein

carrier protein changes shape, molecule passes through

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68
Q

facilitated diffusion

receptor sites

A

highly specific to certain molecules

only facilitate movement of one particular molecule or a very closely related group of molecule

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69
Q

carrier-mediated transport

A

transport ions & organic substances
facilitated diffusion
active transport

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70
Q

characteristics of carrier-mediated transport

A

specific-single or similar substrates
saturable-rate of transport depends on number of transport proteins
regulated (sometimes)-cofactors such as hormones

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71
Q

types of gradients in active transport

A

electrical
chemical
electrochemical

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72
Q

active transport

A

carriers require energy to move substrates against a gradient

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73
Q

primary active transport

A

energy is used to move substrate against gradient
Na/K ATPase
Ca ATPase
H/K ATPase

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74
Q

secondary active transport

A

gradient established from primary active transport used to move substrates against a gradient
utilizes potential energy to move a molecule uphill

75
Q

types of secondary active transport

A

symport/cotransport

antiport/countertransport

76
Q

what type of active transport creates difference in intracellular and extracellular matrix?

A

primary-Na/K ATPase

present in all cell membranes

77
Q

Na/K ATPase uses how much ATP?

A

40%, accounts for significant ATP utilization

78
Q

functions of Na/K ATPase

A

Na & K moved against concentration gradients
asymmetric
creates/maintains electrical gradient across cell membrane

79
Q

how is Na/K ATPase asymmetric?

A

three sodiums are exchanged for two potassiums

3 Na out, 2 K in

80
Q

secondary active transport

A

gradient established for Na used to transport second substrate
indirectly requires energy

81
Q

cotransport

A

secondary active transport
substrate is being moved in the same direction as
sodium
aka symtransporter

82
Q

countertransport

A

secondary active transport
substrate is being moved in opposite direction as sodium
aka antitransporter

83
Q

vesicular transport

A

cell membrane extends around material and internalizes it

84
Q

endocytosis

A

vesicular transport-forms a vesicle

85
Q

exocytosis

A

vesicles fuse with cell membrane and externalize material

86
Q

examples of vesicular transport

A

phagocytosis-WBC

secretion-endocrine/exocrine glands

87
Q

mitochondria structure

A

inner/outer membranes surround matrix

88
Q

mitochondria inner membrane structure

A

folded for greater surface area, folds called cristae

89
Q

mitochondria function

A

provide for efficient utilization of organic fuels
vast majority of ATP production
where O2 and CO2 is produced

90
Q

cellular respiration purpose

A

converts non-usable energy in organic compounds to usable energy
organic molecules oxidized to harvest electrons
electrons carry energy used to phosphorylate ADP
ATP-usable energy in phosphate bonds

91
Q

glycolysis type, location

A

anaerobic, occurs in cytoplasm

92
Q

glycolysis steps

A

glucose trapped, split and oxidized
glucose enters cell through facilitated diffusion
trapped, split into two 3 carbon molecules
electrons stolen from two carbon molecules (oxidized), produce NADH (reduced)
carbon molecules (pyruvate) go into mitochondrial matrix

93
Q

what happens if oxygen is lacking?

A

pyruvate cannot enter mitochondrial matrix, converted to lactic acid
(note-lactic acid converted back to pyruvate when oxygen is restored)

94
Q

results of glycolysis

A

2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, (net) 2 ATP

95
Q

what carries electrons from glycolysis?

96
Q

citric acid cycle location

A

mitochondrial matrix

97
Q

citric acid cycle steps

A

pyruvate oxidized further, carbons removed, broken down into CO2

98
Q

results of citric acid cycle

A 
4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP 
per pyruvate (2)
99
Q

what carries electrons for citric acid cycle?

A

NADH

FADH2

100
Q

electron transport chain/oxidative phosphorylation type, location

A

aerobic, inner mitochondrial membrane

101
Q

electron transport chain/oxidative phosphorylation steps

A

NADH/FADH2 pass electrons (proton and electron, hydrogen atom) to series carriers
protons are transported to space between mitochondrial membranes, generates proton gradient
protons flow from high to low concentration into matrix
potential energy from proton gradient used to phosphorylate ADP into ATP
hydrogens flow through ATPase to join with oxygen and form water

102
Q

how many ATPs created through ETC?

103
Q

what is the final electron acceptor for ETC?

104
Q

what are membrane potentials important in?

A

excitable tissues

105
Q

examples of excitable tissues

A

muscle
heart
neurons
some glands

106
Q

polarized

A 
cell at rest (resting potential), electrical gradient across cell membrane due to Na/K ATPase and proteins
outside positive (Na) inside negative (K and proteins)
ICF negatively charged compared to ECF
107
Q

what happens when an excitable cell is stimulated?

general

A

reversal of polarity in segment of membrane

depolarization, inside becomes positive

108
Q

action potential

A

depolarization spreads across membrane

leads to contraction, nerve impulse, etc.

109
Q

potential

A

state of polarity of membrane

110
Q

what causes local changes in membrane potential?

A

neuron stimulation/inhibition
temperature
light
pressure

111
Q

depolarization

A

reduction of resting potential

112
Q

repolarization

A

increase in membrane potential

113
Q

what happens after a stimulus?

steps

A

sodium channels open
sodium rushes into cell due to electrical gradient, changes inside of cell to positive, depolarizes cell
sodium channels quickly slam shut
potassium channels open
polarization is restored, cell returns to polarized state due to sodium entry and potassium exit
cell back to polarized state due to sodium potassium pump

114
Q

depolarization to threshold potential results in ______

A

action potential
adjacent membrane Na channels open-depolarization
adjacent membrane K channels open-repolarization

115
Q

propagation

A

membrane potential changes move along cell membrane

116
Q

what results from membrane potential propagation?

A

nerve impulse in neurons

contraction in muscle

117
Q

components of tissues

A

cells

extracellular matrix

118
Q

what do tissues form?

119
Q

4 types of tissues

A

epithelium
connective
muscle
nervous

120
Q

how many tissue types make up an organ?

A

combination of at least 2 tissue types, normally 4

121
Q

epithelium location

A

body surfaces

linings of cavities/hollow organs

122
Q

apical surface

A

exposed surface of epithelium

123
Q

cell/matrix ratio epithelium

A

hypercellular with little matrix

124
Q

epithelium-vascular or avascular?

125
Q

epithelium regeneration rate

A

high degree of regeneration, most cancers

126
Q

epithelium functions

A

provides:
protection
permeability
often secretes substances onto exposed surfece (glandular epithelium)

127
Q

what else can epithelium posses and functions

A

microvilli-increase surface area

cilia-move something along surface (female eggs, mucus in respiratory tract)

128
Q

glandular epithelium

A

epithelium tissue that secretes substances onto exposed surface

129
Q

what is epithelium classified by?

A

apical cell shape

presence of layers

130
Q

epithelium cell shapes

A

squamous-flat
cuboidal-cube
columnar-tall
transitional-change shapes

131
Q

epithelium layer types

A

simple
stratified
pseudostratified

132
Q

simple squamous epithelium

A

flat, one layer

locations: ventral body cavities, lining heart and blood vessels, kidney tubules, alveoli of lungs (provides minimal barrier for rapid gas exchange)
functions: reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion

133
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium

A

cube, one layer

locations: glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, thyroid gland
functions: limited protection, secretion, absorption

134
Q

simple columnar epithelium

A

tall, one layer

locations: lining of stomach, intestines, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys
functions: protection, secretion, absorption

135
Q

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

A

different heights, long one layer; clue-nuclei lie at different levels to tell columnar from pseudostratified, have cilia as opposed to microvilli

locations: lining of nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi, portions of male reproductive tract
functions: protection, secretion

136
Q

stratified squamous epithelium

A

multiple layers, flat
areas subjected to trauma
locations: surface of skin, lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus and vagina
functions: provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack

137
Q

transitional epithelium

A

can transition between columnar and squamous as bladder fills

locations: urinary bladder, renal pelvis of kidneys, ureters
functions: permits expansion and recoil after stretching

138
Q

most abundant tissue

A

connective tissue

139
Q

connective tissue functions

A

fills spaces
supports structures
provides three dimensional structure

140
Q

cell/matrix connective tissue ratio

A

hypocellular-fewer cells more matrix

141
Q

connective tissue components

A

ground substance-liquid, solid or gel

protein fibers-collagen, reticular or elastic

142
Q

how are connective tissues classified?

A

consistency of ground substance

presence/proportion of fibers

143
Q

connective tissue proper types

A

loose

dense

144
Q

loose connective tissue

A

fibers create loose, open framework

examples: adipose tissue, reticular, areolar

145
Q

dense connective tissue

A

fibers densely packed

example: dense regular or dense irregular (dermis)

146
Q

fluid connective tissue types

A

blood and lymph

ground substance-liquid, proteins not fibers but dissolved

147
Q

supporting connective tissue types

A

cartilage

bone

148
Q

cartilage ground substance

A

gelatinous

149
Q

bone ground substance

150
Q

muscle types

A

skeletal
smooth
cardiac

151
Q

only thing all types of muscles have in common

A

they contract

152
Q

contraction

A

shortening of muscle cells, produces movement

may produce movement of skeleton, heart or internal hollow organs (smooth)

153
Q

what are the contractile proteins of muscle?

A

actin

myosin

154
Q

arrangement of actin and myosin in skeletal and cardiac muscle

A

sarcomeres

155
Q

what regulates actin and myosin?

A

troponin

tropomyosin

156
Q

skeletal muscle movement

A

generally skeleton

moves eye, voluntary sphincters

157
Q

skeletal muscle cell structure

A

long, multinucleate cells

actin/myosin product striations

158
Q

what stimulates skeletal muscles?

A

somatic motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscles to contract

159
Q

smooth muscle locations

A

walls of hollow organs (except heart)

160
Q

smooth muscle action

A

product organ movement or contraction

161
Q

smooth muscle structure

A

short, uninucleate cells

no sarcomeres

162
Q

what stimulates smooth muscles?

A

autonomic neurons or hormones

163
Q

cardiac muscle location

A

only in heart

164
Q

cardiac muscle structure

A

short, branched uninucleate cells
connected by intercalated discs
actin/myosin product striations

165
Q

what stimulates cardiac muscle?

A

conduction system

166
Q

nervous tissue components

A

neurons and neuroglia

makes up central and peripheral nervous systems

167
Q

what does the nervous system do?

A

collects internal/external information–senses
interprets information-processes
initiates commands to restore aberrations-responds
neurons sense, process, respond

168
Q

what supports neurons?

169
Q

neuron function

A

conduct information via nerve impulses-action potentials

170
Q

neuron cell body-soma

A

contains nucleus/organelles

171
Q

actin and myosin

A

Muscle contraction thus results from an interaction between the actin and myosin filaments that generates their movement relative to one another. The molecular basis for this interaction is the binding of myosin to actin filaments, allowing myosin to function as a motor that drives filament sliding.

172
Q

neuron dendrites

A

usually multiple/branched

receive incoming information

173
Q

neuron axon

A

usually single

conduct outgoing information

174
Q

neurons that conduct towards CNS

A

afferent/sensory

175
Q

neurons that conduct from CNS

A

efferent/motor

176
Q

multipolar neurons

A

all somatic motor and visceral motor neurons, most CNS neurons

177
Q

unipolar neurons

A

all somatic sensory and visceral sensory neurons

178
Q

bipolar neurons

A

some special sensory neurons

179
Q

CNS glia astrocytes

A

scar formation

part of blood-brain barrier

180
Q

cns glia oligodendrocytes

A

responsible for myelination

181
Q

cns glia microglis

A

phagocytic defense cells

182
Q

cns glia ependymal cells

A

lining of brain ventricles

source of cerebrospinal fluid

183
Q

pns glia satelitte cells

A

found in ganglia

184
Q

pns glia schwann cells

A

responsible for myelination

Pathophysiology I (10 decks)

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