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Pathophysiology I > Cell Biology > Flashcards

Cell Biology Flashcards

1
Q

what are cells? how many? what type?

A 
smallest functional unit of organization
35-40 trillion on average
human cells are eukaryotic
each suited for specific purpose 
many types, combine to form tissues
structure & organelle composition suit cell function
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2
Q

eukaryotic

A

organized nucleus with membrane surrounding it along with several other membrane-bound organelles

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3
Q

plasma membrane function

A

separates inside from outside of cell

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4
Q

what is most abundant molecule in body?

A

water

most of water in cell membrane 2/3, 1/3 is extracelullar

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5
Q

amount of body water in intracellular compartment

A

inside plasma membrane

2/3

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6
Q

amount of body water in extracellular compartment, breakdown of two sections

A

extracellular compartment 1/3 body water
tissue fluid- interstitial fluid ISF, blood plasma
out of tissue fluid, 3/4 is ISF, 1/4 is in blood vessels

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7
Q

difference in ICF and ECF

A

ICF-higher in proteins, lower in sodium, higher in potassium

ECF-lower proteins, higher sodium, lower potassium

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8
Q

what is ISF similar to? why?

A

plasma

boundary between two spaces is not very selective

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9
Q

nucleus

A

stores cell’s DNA

controls cell growth and reproduction

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10
Q

mitochondria

A

perform cellular respiration

“powerhouse of cell”

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11
Q

ribosomes

A

produce proteins

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12
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

synthesis, folding, modification, transport of proteins

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13
Q

golgi apparatus

A

process and package macromolecules (proteins, lipids)
transport lipids
create lysosomes

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14
Q

lysosomes

A

stomach of cell

contain digestive enzymes and digest worn out organelles, food particles, engulfed viruses or bacteria

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15
Q

peroxisomes

A

break down fatty acids

transfer hydrogen

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16
Q

proteasomes

A

digest proteins by proteolysis

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17
Q

cytoskeleton

A

gives a cell its shape, offers support, and facilitates movement through three main components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

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18
Q

three compartments of cytoskeleton

A

microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules

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19
Q

what is plasma membrane made of

A

phosopholipid bilayer with integral and peripheral proteins

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20
Q

what is plasma membrane barrier to? type of permeability?

A

water soluble molecules

selectively permeable

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21
Q

functions of proteins in plasma membrane

A 
receptors-ligands to attach to
channels/carriers-allow for water soluble molecules to move inside cell
enzymes-catabolize chemical reactions
anchors-for cytoskeleton
recognition (antigens)-markers
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22
Q

function of cholesterol in plasma membrane

A

provides fluidity for proteins

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23
Q

structure of phospholipids in PM

A

glycerol head-hydrophilic

fatty acid tails-hydrophobic

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24
Q

functions of plasma membrane receptors

A

bind specific extracellular molecules

elicit changes in cell activity via signal transduction pathways

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25
types of plasma membrane receptors that bind specific extracellular molecules
first messengers: hormones growth factors neurotransmitters these are signaling molecules that tells a cell to do something (speed up, slow down)
26
types of plasma membrane receptors that elicit changes in cell activity via signal transduction pathways
g-proteins enzymes ion channels
27
signal transduction pathway
extracellular messenger binds intracellular machinery process started extracellular message transduced inside cell
28
how does a water soluble signal exert its effects when it cannot get into cell?
signal transduction pathways
29
g-protein linked receptors
receptor binds to g protein that is linked to a guanine based nucleotide g protein changes and becomes activated, leads to increase in second messenger-cAMP second messenger leads to cell response (cAMP activates enzyme through kinases) opens ion channels target cell response
30
what is the most common signal transduction pathway?
g protein linked receptors
31
g protein linked receptors | what causes the g protein to become activated?
first messenger
32
g protein linked receptors | what happens when the g protein is activated?
enzyme catalyzes ATP to cAMP
33
g protein linked receptors | what is the second messenger?
cAMP
34
kinases
add phosphate group on | phosphorylate proteins and change their activity
35
enzyme-linked receptors
receptor has intrinsic activity or linked to enzyme
36
what do enzyme-linked receptors do?
convert extracellular signal to internal response
37
enzyme-linked receptors | most frequent enzyme
tyrosine kinase | phosphorylates intracellular proteins
38
what utilizes enzyme-linked receptors?
growth factors
39
enzyme-linked receptors important in what type of mechanism?
tumorigenesis | multiple myeloma-mutation in enzyme constitutively turned on, tyrosine kinase still active, overgrowth of B cells
40
enzyme-linked receptors | nerve growth factor
receptor intrinsically has kinase activity gh binds, starts pathway tyrosine phosphorylation changes activity of protein
41
ion-channel-linked receptors
receptor acts as a gated channel for ion flow across membrane
42
ion-channel-linked receptors | what happens with ligand binds?
channel is transiently opened, allowing ion flow
43
ion-channel-linked receptors | mechanism
convert extracellular signal to internal response
44
ion-channel-linked receptors what is this involved in?
neuron conduction & muscle contraction
45
ion
atom that has gained or lost electrons, take on electrical charge as a result
46
what can freely pass through plasma membrane?
lipid-soluble molecules
47
two types of transport-how do water soluble molecules get inside cell?
passive | active
48
passive transport
rely on gradients, don't require energy
49
active transport
transport molecules against gradients, require energy
50
examples of passive transport
diffusion osmosis facilitated diffusion
51
examples of vesicular transport
endocytosis | exocytosis
52
charges of cell
inside more negatively charged | outside more positively charged
53
gradient for sodium in cell
outside higher | inside lower
54
gradient for potassium in cell
inside higher | outside lower
55
diffusion
movement of molecules across membrane from high to low concentration
56
when does diffusion stop?
when concentration on both sides is equal | no net movement
57
what utilizes diffusion?
lipid soluble molecules | steroids, thyroid hormones, gases, alcohol
58
what molecules use diffusion through nonspecific protein channels?
uncharged small water-soluble molecules
59
what accelerates diffusion?
larger gradients | heat
60
osmosis
diffusion of water towards higher solute concentration
61
what binds water in the body?
``` sodium glucose urea proteins bc of negative charge ```
62
wherever _______ goes, water always follows
sodium glucose urea proteins
63
isotonic
does not cause osmotic flow of water into or out of a cell
64
hypotonic
less solutes causes osmotic flow of water into cell
65
hypertonic
more solutes causes osmotic flow of water out of cell, crenation
66
facilitated diffusion
carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids) does not require output of energy
67
steps for facilitated diffusion
molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein | carrier protein changes shape, molecule passes through
68
facilitated diffusion | receptor sites
highly specific to certain molecules | only facilitate movement of one particular molecule or a very closely related group of molecule
69
carrier-mediated transport
transport ions & organic substances facilitated diffusion active transport
70
characteristics of carrier-mediated transport
specific-single or similar substrates saturable-rate of transport depends on number of transport proteins regulated (sometimes)-cofactors such as hormones
71
types of gradients in active transport
electrical chemical electrochemical
72
active transport
carriers require energy to move substrates against a gradient
73
primary active transport
energy is used to move substrate against gradient Na/K ATPase Ca ATPase H/K ATPase
74
secondary active transport
gradient established from primary active transport used to move substrates against a gradient utilizes potential energy to move a molecule uphill
75
types of secondary active transport
symport/cotransport | antiport/countertransport
76
what type of active transport creates difference in intracellular and extracellular matrix?
primary-Na/K ATPase | present in all cell membranes
77
Na/K ATPase uses how much ATP?
40%, accounts for significant ATP utilization
78
functions of Na/K ATPase
Na & K moved against concentration gradients asymmetric creates/maintains electrical gradient across cell membrane
79
how is Na/K ATPase asymmetric?
three sodiums are exchanged for two potassiums | 3 Na out, 2 K in
80
secondary active transport
gradient established for Na used to transport second substrate indirectly requires energy
81
cotransport
secondary active transport substrate is being moved in the same direction as sodium aka symtransporter
82
countertransport
secondary active transport substrate is being moved in opposite direction as sodium aka antitransporter
83
vesicular transport
cell membrane extends around material and internalizes it
84
endocytosis
vesicular transport-forms a vesicle
85
exocytosis
vesicles fuse with cell membrane and externalize material
86
examples of vesicular transport
phagocytosis-WBC | secretion-endocrine/exocrine glands
87
mitochondria structure
inner/outer membranes surround matrix
88
mitochondria inner membrane structure
folded for greater surface area, folds called cristae
89
mitochondria function
provide for efficient utilization of organic fuels vast majority of ATP production where O2 and CO2 is produced
90
cellular respiration purpose
converts non-usable energy in organic compounds to usable energy organic molecules oxidized to harvest electrons electrons carry energy used to phosphorylate ADP ATP-usable energy in phosphate bonds
91
glycolysis type, location
anaerobic, occurs in cytoplasm
92
glycolysis steps
glucose trapped, split and oxidized glucose enters cell through facilitated diffusion trapped, split into two 3 carbon molecules electrons stolen from two carbon molecules (oxidized), produce NADH (reduced) carbon molecules (pyruvate) go into mitochondrial matrix
93
what happens if oxygen is lacking?
pyruvate cannot enter mitochondrial matrix, converted to lactic acid (note-lactic acid converted back to pyruvate when oxygen is restored)
94
results of glycolysis
2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, (net) 2 ATP
95
what carries electrons from glycolysis?
NADH
96
citric acid cycle location
mitochondrial matrix
97
citric acid cycle steps
pyruvate oxidized further, carbons removed, broken down into CO2
98
results of citric acid cycle
``` 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP per pyruvate (2) ```
99
what carries electrons for citric acid cycle?
NADH | FADH2
100
electron transport chain/oxidative phosphorylation type, location
aerobic, inner mitochondrial membrane
101
electron transport chain/oxidative phosphorylation steps
NADH/FADH2 pass electrons (proton and electron, hydrogen atom) to series carriers protons are transported to space between mitochondrial membranes, generates proton gradient protons flow from high to low concentration into matrix potential energy from proton gradient used to phosphorylate ADP into ATP hydrogens flow through ATPase to join with oxygen and form water
102
how many ATPs created through ETC?
32 ATP
103
what is the final electron acceptor for ETC?
oxygen
104
what are membrane potentials important in?
excitable tissues
105
examples of excitable tissues
muscle heart neurons some glands
106
polarized
``` cell at rest (resting potential), electrical gradient across cell membrane due to Na/K ATPase and proteins outside positive (Na) inside negative (K and proteins) ICF negatively charged compared to ECF ```
107
what happens when an excitable cell is stimulated? | general
reversal of polarity in segment of membrane | depolarization, inside becomes positive
108
action potential
depolarization spreads across membrane | leads to contraction, nerve impulse, etc.
109
potential
state of polarity of membrane
110
what causes local changes in membrane potential?
neuron stimulation/inhibition temperature light pressure
111
depolarization
reduction of resting potential
112
repolarization
increase in membrane potential
113
what happens after a stimulus? | steps
sodium channels open sodium rushes into cell due to electrical gradient, changes inside of cell to positive, depolarizes cell sodium channels quickly slam shut potassium channels open polarization is restored, cell returns to polarized state due to sodium entry and potassium exit cell back to polarized state due to sodium potassium pump
114
depolarization to threshold potential results in ______
action potential adjacent membrane Na channels open-depolarization adjacent membrane K channels open-repolarization
115
propagation
membrane potential changes move along cell membrane
116
what results from membrane potential propagation?
nerve impulse in neurons | contraction in muscle
117
components of tissues
cells | extracellular matrix
118
what do tissues form?
organs
119
4 types of tissues
epithelium connective muscle nervous
120
how many tissue types make up an organ?
combination of at least 2 tissue types, normally 4
121
epithelium location
body surfaces | linings of cavities/hollow organs
122
apical surface
exposed surface of epithelium
123
cell/matrix ratio epithelium
hypercellular with little matrix
124
epithelium-vascular or avascular?
avascular
125
epithelium regeneration rate
high degree of regeneration, most cancers
126
epithelium functions
provides: protection permeability often secretes substances onto exposed surfece (glandular epithelium)
127
what else can epithelium posses and functions
microvilli-increase surface area | cilia-move something along surface (female eggs, mucus in respiratory tract)
128
glandular epithelium
epithelium tissue that secretes substances onto exposed surface
129
what is epithelium classified by?
apical cell shape | presence of layers
130
epithelium cell shapes
squamous-flat cuboidal-cube columnar-tall transitional-change shapes
131
epithelium layer types
simple stratified pseudostratified
132
simple squamous epithelium
flat, one layer locations: ventral body cavities, lining heart and blood vessels, kidney tubules, alveoli of lungs (provides minimal barrier for rapid gas exchange) functions: reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion
133
simple cuboidal epithelium
cube, one layer locations: glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, thyroid gland functions: limited protection, secretion, absorption
134
simple columnar epithelium
tall, one layer locations: lining of stomach, intestines, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys functions: protection, secretion, absorption
135
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
different heights, long one layer; clue-nuclei lie at different levels to tell columnar from pseudostratified, have cilia as opposed to microvilli locations: lining of nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi, portions of male reproductive tract functions: protection, secretion
136
stratified squamous epithelium
multiple layers, flat areas subjected to trauma locations: surface of skin, lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus and vagina functions: provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack
137
transitional epithelium
can transition between columnar and squamous as bladder fills locations: urinary bladder, renal pelvis of kidneys, ureters functions: permits expansion and recoil after stretching
138
most abundant tissue
connective tissue
139
connective tissue functions
fills spaces supports structures provides three dimensional structure
140
cell/matrix connective tissue ratio
hypocellular-fewer cells more matrix
141
connective tissue components
ground substance-liquid, solid or gel | protein fibers-collagen, reticular or elastic
142
how are connective tissues classified?
consistency of ground substance | presence/proportion of fibers
143
connective tissue proper types
loose | dense
144
loose connective tissue
fibers create loose, open framework | examples: adipose tissue, reticular, areolar
145
dense connective tissue
fibers densely packed | example: dense regular or dense irregular (dermis)
146
fluid connective tissue types
blood and lymph | ground substance-liquid, proteins not fibers but dissolved
147
supporting connective tissue types
cartilage | bone
148
cartilage ground substance
gelatinous
149
bone ground substance
solid
150
muscle types
skeletal smooth cardiac
151
only thing all types of muscles have in common
they contract
152
contraction
shortening of muscle cells, produces movement | may produce movement of skeleton, heart or internal hollow organs (smooth)
153
what are the contractile proteins of muscle?
actin | myosin
154
arrangement of actin and myosin in skeletal and cardiac muscle
sarcomeres
155
what regulates actin and myosin?
troponin | tropomyosin
156
skeletal muscle movement
generally skeleton | moves eye, voluntary sphincters
157
skeletal muscle cell structure
long, multinucleate cells | actin/myosin product striations
158
what stimulates skeletal muscles?
somatic motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscles to contract
159
smooth muscle locations
walls of hollow organs (except heart)
160
smooth muscle action
product organ movement or contraction
161
smooth muscle structure
short, uninucleate cells | no sarcomeres
162
what stimulates smooth muscles?
autonomic neurons or hormones
163
cardiac muscle location
only in heart
164
cardiac muscle structure
short, branched uninucleate cells connected by intercalated discs actin/myosin product striations
165
what stimulates cardiac muscle?
conduction system
166
nervous tissue components
neurons and neuroglia | makes up central and peripheral nervous systems
167
what does the nervous system do?
collects internal/external information--senses interprets information-processes initiates commands to restore aberrations-responds neurons sense, process, respond
168
what supports neurons?
glia
169
neuron function
conduct information via nerve impulses-action potentials
170
neuron cell body-soma
contains nucleus/organelles
171
actin and myosin
Muscle contraction thus results from an interaction between the actin and myosin filaments that generates their movement relative to one another. The molecular basis for this interaction is the binding of myosin to actin filaments, allowing myosin to function as a motor that drives filament sliding.
172
neuron dendrites
usually multiple/branched | receive incoming information
173
neuron axon
usually single | conduct outgoing information
174
neurons that conduct towards CNS
afferent/sensory
175
neurons that conduct from CNS
efferent/motor
176
multipolar neurons
all somatic motor and visceral motor neurons, most CNS neurons
177
unipolar neurons
all somatic sensory and visceral sensory neurons
178
bipolar neurons
some special sensory neurons
179
CNS glia astrocytes
scar formation | part of blood-brain barrier
180
cns glia oligodendrocytes
responsible for myelination
181
cns glia microglis
phagocytic defense cells
182
cns glia ependymal cells
lining of brain ventricles | source of cerebrospinal fluid
183
pns glia satelitte cells
found in ganglia
184
pns glia schwann cells
responsible for myelination

Pathophysiology I (10 decks)

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