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HB 2 > Cell Adaptations, Injury And Death (Dr. Nguyen) > Flashcards

Cell Adaptations, Injury And Death (Dr. Nguyen) Flashcards

1
Q

Define the term pathology.

A

Study of diseases (suffering)

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2
Q

What are the components of a pathological picture of a disease?

A

Etiology
Pathogenesis
Morphology
Clinical manifestations

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3
Q

What is etiology? What are some examples?

A

The cause/set of causes of a disease
Ex: genetics, environment, multifactorial

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4
Q

What is Pathogenesis?

A

Steps in development of disease (spread, infections)

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5
Q

What is morphology?

A

Ways in which cells, tissues, or organ changes

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6
Q

What are clinical manifestations?

A

Functional consequence

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7
Q

What did Virchow, the father of modern pathology, discover about pathology?

A

All diseases start with molecular or structural alterations in cells.

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8
Q

What are 4 types of cellular adaptions that can occur when under stress?

A

Hypertrophic
Hyperplasia
Atrophy
Metaplasia

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9
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

An increase in the size of cells due to increase in protein in response to stress

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10
Q

Are new cells created in hypertrophy?

A

NO

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11
Q

What kind of cells does hypertrophy occur in?

A

Cells that can divide (epithelial, hematopoietic, connective tissue)
Cells that cannot divide (nerves, skeletal and cardiac)

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12
Q

What is the difference between physiological and pathological?

A

Physiological is normal
Pathological is abnormal, disease causing

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13
Q

What are the physiological causes of hypertrophy and their examples?

A

Growth factor or hormonal stimulation
Ex: growth of uterus during pregnancy

Increased functional demand
Ex: enlargement of muscle fibers from “pumping iron”

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14
Q

What are the pathological causes of hypertrophy and their examples?

A

Increased functional demand
Ex: cardiac enlargement from HTN or aortic valve disease

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15
Q

What is an examples of hypertrophic cells in the eye?

A

Congenital Hypertrophy RPE (CHRPE)- RPE cells enlarge, increasing proteins and pigment

Corneal endothelial cells- polymegethism, polymorphism

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16
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

An increase the number of cells in an organ or tissue (controlled)

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17
Q

In what kind of cell does hyperplasia occur?

A

Cells that are capable of cell division

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18
Q

Can hyperplasia and hypertrophy occur simultaneously?

A

YES and often in response to the same stimuli

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19
Q

What are the physiological causes of hyperplasia and their examples?

A

Hormonal (female breast enlargement)

Compensatory (liver after hepatectomy, healing, regeneration after surgery) compensates for lost cells

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20
Q

What are the pathological causes of hyperplasia and their examples?

A

Excessive hormonal or growth factor stimulation (endometrial hyperplasia patient is not pregnant)

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21
Q

Is hyperplasia controlled? How can hyperplasia disappear?

A

YES

If signals that initiate it lessen; stimulus is removed response stops

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22
Q

What kind of hyperplasia can lead to cancer?

A

Pathological hyperplasia when it becomes uncontrolled

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23
Q

What is atrophy?

A

Skrinkage in the size of the cell and in the size of the organ as a result of loss of cell substance

Cell function is diminished but they are NOT dead

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24
Q

What are the causes associated with atrophy?

A

Decreased workload (atrophy of disuse)
Loss of innervation (denervation atrophy) Diminished blood supply
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Aging (senile atrophy)

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25
How is protein synthesis and protein degradation affected in atrophy?
Decreased protein synthesis (reduced metabolic activity) Increased protein degradation (ubiquitin proteasome pathway, autophagy)
26
What is autophagy?
Consumption of body’s own tissue as metabolic process
27
What is metaplasia? What is it a response to? How does it “help” the cell respond?
A reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another Usually in response to chronic irritation Makes cells better able to withstand stress
28
What are 2 examples of metaplasia?
Columnar epithelium to squamous (habitual cigarette smoking, trachea) Squamous epithelium to columnar (chronic gastric reflux)
29
What may result are a result of metaplasia?
May result in reduced functions or increased risk for malignant (uncontrolled) transformation
30
How might metaplasia be reversed?
With removal (abatement) of stimulus
31
Describe conjunctival squamous metaplasia?
Conjunctiva columnar epithelium with goblet cells becomes squamous Affects tear film which affects cornea
32
What is reversible cell injury?
Pathological changes reversible with removal of stimulus
33
What is irreversible cell injury?
Pathological changes permanent & lead to cell death
34
What are 7 causes of cell injury?
Oxygen deprivation Physical agents Chemical agents and drugs Infectious agents Immunologic reactions Genetic defects Nutritional imbalances Aging
35
Describe 3 mechanisms associated with hypoxia (oxygen deprivation)?
Ischemia (loss of blood supply) Inadequate oxygenation of blood (pneumonia) Loss of O2 carrying capacity of blood (anemia)
36
What are some examples of physical agents causing cell injury?
Trauma, heat, cold, radiation, electric shock
37
What are the 2 classifications of chemical agents and drugs causing cell injury?
Therapeutic and narcotic
38
How can intracellular elements such as sodium or glucose cause cell injury?
Increases may disrupt osmotic gradient causing injury
39
Describe an example of immunologic reactions causing cell injury.
Autoimmune diseases (body attacks normal cells)
40
Describe the morphological changes that occur with reversible injury.
Cellular swelling Fatty change (liver and heart muscle cells) Intracellular changes
41
Which necrosis that can only be seen microscopically?
Fibrinoid necrosis
42
What kind of necrosis is associated with tuberculosis?
Caseous (queso) necrosis
43
Describe gangrenous necrosis.
Coagulative necrosis of limb secondary to loss of blood supply “wet”-liquefied by bacteria infection
44
Describe fibrinoid
Immune complexes together with fibrin that has leaked out of vessels
45
Describe fat as a pattern of tissue necrosis.
Areas of fat destruction Enzymes (macrophage or pancreatic cell) degrade fat Saponification Calcification
46
Describe caseous.
Soft, cheese like Area of necrosis enclosed in inflammatory border (granuloma)
47
Describe liquefaction.
Necrotic area soft and filled with fluid and cellular framework is destroyed localized bacterial infections (abscesses) & in the brain
48
Describe coagulation.
Most common type of necrosis Denaturation of cytoplasmic proteins with preservation of framework of cells for several days Solid organs except brain
49
What is the irreversible morphology of cell and tissue injury?
Necrosis
50
What is necrosis associated with?
Loss of membrane integrity Leakage of cellular content Inflammation (influx of immune cells as membrane is disrupted)
51
Describe how morphology occurs in necrosis.
Nuclear shrinkage, fragmentation and dissolution (pyknotic, karyorrhexis, karyolysis) Breakdown of membranes Leakage and enzymatic digestion of cellular contents Myelin figures
52
What is autolysis?
Occurs post cell death Digestion of dead cell by its own lysosome
53
What is heterolysis?
Occurs post cell death Digestion by lysosomal enzymes of immigrant leukocytes
54
What is dystrophic calcification?
Occurs post cell death Necrotic cells attract calcium salts
55
Describe cellular swelling associated with reversible injury.
Result of failure of energy dependent ion pumps in the plasma membrane (oxygen deficiency in pumps)
56
Describe fatty change associated with reversible injury.
Occurs in hypoxic injury, and in various forms of toxic or metabolic injury Lipid vacuoles in the cytoplasm
57
Describe the intracellular changes associated with reversible injury.
Plasma membrane alterations (blebbing, distortion of microvilli, and loosening of intercellular attachments) Mitochondrial changes (swelling) ER dilation (detachment of ribosomes) Nuclear alterations (clumping of chromatin) Myelin figures (phospholipid masses from damaged cellular membrane)
58
What cellular components are most frequently damaged by injurious stimuli?
Mitochondria Cell membrane Protein synthesis and packaging machinery DNA
59
What is the definition of a free radical?
Atoms or groups of atoms with an odd (unpaired) number of electrons, typically highly reactive and short lived.
60
What are some causes of free radicals?
During normal reduction -oxidation reaction of normal metabolism – Ionizing radiation – Occurs during inflammation (oxidative burst) – Metabolism of exogenous chemicals or drugs ex. CCl 4-→CCl3 – Transition metals
61
What is ischemia reperfusion injury?
Restoration of blood flow to ischemic tissues can promote recovery of cells if they are reversibly injured, but can also paradoxically exacerbate the injury and cause cell death.

HB 2 (17 decks)

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