CBL Flashcards
1
Q
List the aims of the menstrual cycle
A
- Prepare the body for potential pregnancy.
- Regulate hormonal balance.
- Maintain reproductive health.
- Facilitate the shedding of the uterine lining if no pregnancy occurs.
2
Q
Detail the key hormones of the HPG axis and the mechanisms controlling their synthesis and secretion
A
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Released from the hypothalamus; stimulates the pituitary to release FSH and LH.
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Promotes follicle maturation in ovaries.
- Luteinizing hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation and corpus luteum formation.
- Estrogen and progesterone: Produced by ovaries; regulate feedback on hypothalamus and pituitary.
3
Q
Describe the phases of the menstrual cycle and its endocrinological control
A
- Menstrual phase: Shedding of the uterine lining; low hormone levels.
- Follicular phase: FSH stimulates follicle growth; estrogen rises.
- Ovulation: Surge in LH causes release of an egg.
- Luteal phase: Corpus luteum produces progesterone; prepares the endometrium for implantation.
4
Q
Define the menstrual transition and menopause in physiological terms
A
- Menstrual transition: Perimenopause; characterized by irregular cycles due to fluctuating hormone levels.
- Menopause: Cessation of menstrual cycles for 12 months; decreased estrogen and progesterone production due to ovarian senescence.
5
Q
Describe the basic anatomy of the female pelvis & genitalia
A
- Pelvis: Includes the bony pelvis, pelvic cavity, and pelvic floor muscles.
- Genitalia: Includes external structures (vulva, labia, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries).
6
Q
Give a differential diagnosis for testicular pain
A
- Testicular torsion: Sudden, severe pain due to twisted spermatic cord.
- Epididymitis: Inflammation of the epididymis, often due to infection.
- Orchitis: Inflammation of the testicle, sometimes associated with mumps.
- Inguinal hernia: Intestine protrudes through abdominal wall near groin.
- Trauma: Injury to the testicle or scrotum.
- Hydrocele: Fluid accumulation around the testicle.
- Varicocele: Enlarged veins in the scrotum.
- Testicular cancer: May present as a painless lump or dull ache.
7
Q
Identify the components of semen analysis
A
- Volume: Total amount of ejaculate.
- Sperm concentration: Number of sperm per milliliter.
- Motility: Percentage of moving sperm.
- Morphology: Percentage of normally shaped sperm.
- pH level: Acidity or alkalinity of semen.
- White blood cells: Indicate infection if present.
8
Q
Describe, in general terms, the anatomy of the components of the male reproductive system
A
- Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone.
- Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm.
- Vas deferens: Transports sperm from epididymis to urethra.
- Seminal vesicles: Produce seminal fluid.
- Prostate gland: Produces prostatic fluid, part of semen.
- Urethra: Passage for urine and semen.
- Penis: Organ for sexual intercourse and urination.
9
Q
Appreciate some of the common clinical conditions related to the male reproductive system
A
- Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH): Enlarged prostate causing urinary symptoms.
- Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland.
- Erectile dysfunction: Inability to achieve or maintain an erection.
- Male infertility: Issues with sperm production or function.
- Testicular cancer: Malignant growth in the testicles.
- STIs: Sexually transmitted infections affecting the genital area.
10
Q
Describe the process of spermatogenesis
A
- Initiation: Begins at puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
- Mitosis: Spermatogonia divide to form primary spermatocytes.
- Meiosis I: Primary spermatocytes divide to form secondary spermatocytes.
- Meiosis II: Secondary spermatocytes divide to form spermatids.
- Spermiogenesis: Spermatids mature into spermatozoa (sperm cells).
11
Q
Give an overview of the clinical and hormonal changes in pregnancy and explain how these may be used in the diagnosis of pregnancy
A
- Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): Detected in blood and urine; confirms pregnancy.
- Progesterone: Increases to maintain uterine lining.
- Estrogen: Rises to support fetal development and maternal adaptation.
- Clinical signs: Missed menstrual period, nausea, breast tenderness, and positive pregnancy test.
12
Q
Describe the maternal changes of pregnancy in relation to respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and metabolic and endocrine systems
A
- Respiratory: Increased tidal volume and oxygen consumption.
- Cardiovascular: Increased blood volume, cardiac output, and heart rate; decreased blood pressure.
- Gastrointestinal: Slowed motility, increased risk of reflux and constipation.
- Genitourinary: Increased kidney size, GFR, and urinary frequency.
- Metabolic and endocrine: Increased insulin resistance, weight gain, and altered thyroid function.
13
Q
Define the functions of the extra-embryonic structures and describe the key steps in their development
A
- Placenta: Nutrient and waste exchange between mother and fetus; hormone production.
- Amniotic sac: Cushions and protects the fetus.
- Yolk sac: Early blood cell formation.
- Development: Trophoblast invades endometrium, forming chorionic villi; placenta develops from chorion and decidua.
14
Q
Relate pathological conditions of pregnancy to normal physiology with reference to gestational diabetes
A
- Normal physiology: Increased insulin resistance to ensure glucose availability for the fetus.
- Gestational diabetes: Exaggerated insulin resistance; inability to maintain normal glucose levels, leading to hyperglycemia.
15
Q
Demonstrate awareness of the workings of integrated health and social care teams for people with an intellectual disability
A
- Interdisciplinary collaboration: Involves healthcare professionals, social workers, and caregivers.
- Individualized care plans: Tailored to meet the specific needs of the individual.
- Support services: Include education, occupational therapy, and psychological support.
16
Q
Perform a basic antenatal examination on a manikin competently
A
- Steps: Measure fundal height, palpate fetal position, auscultate fetal heart, and assess maternal vital signs.
17
Q
Understand what is meant by faltering growth, short stature, underweight, overweight, and obesity and how to recognize these
A
- Faltering growth: Slower than expected growth rate.
- Short stature: Height significantly below average for age and sex.
- Underweight: Body weight below the normal range for age and height.
- Overweight and obesity: Excess body weight/fat; BMI above normal range.
18
Q
List common causes of growth faltering
A
- Nutritional deficiencies: Inadequate intake of calories or nutrients.
- Chronic illnesses: Conditions like cystic fibrosis, celiac disease.
- Hormonal imbalances: Growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism.
- Genetic conditions: Turner syndrome, Down syndrome.
- Psychosocial factors: Neglect, emotional stress.
19
Q
Briefly outline how genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors impact on growth
A
- Genetic factors: Inherited traits determine potential height and growth patterns.
- Nutritional factors: Adequate nutrition is essential for optimal growth.
- Environmental factors: Living conditions, healthcare access, and emotional well-being influence growth.
20
Q
Plot and interpret a weight and height chart
A
- Plotting: Place weight and height measurements on growth chart.
- Interpretation: Assess percentile ranks to determine if growth is within normal ranges.
21
Q
Describe the role of growth assessment as part of child health surveillance
A
- Monitoring development: Regular measurements to track growth patterns.
- Early detection: Identifies potential growth disorders or health issues.
- Intervention: Guides timely medical or nutritional interventions.
22
Q
Identify common risk factors for falls in the older population
A
- Physical factors: Muscle weakness, balance issues, impaired vision.
- Medical conditions: Arthritis, diabetes, dementia.
- Medications: Sedatives, antihypertensives, diuretics.
- Environmental hazards: Poor lighting, loose rugs, slippery floors.
23
Q
Describe key factors in the clinical approach to falls prevention
A
- Assessment: Evaluate risk factors and history of falls.
- Intervention: Strength and balance training, medication review, home safety modifications.
- Education: Teach patients and caregivers about fall prevention strategies.
24
Q
Outline the concepts of frailty and multiple morbidity
A
- Frailty: A syndrome of decreased reserve and resistance to stressors, leading to increased vulnerability.
- Multiple morbidity: Coexistence of multiple chronic diseases or conditions.
25
Q
Describe the consequences of the frailty syndrome
A
- Increased risk of falls and injuries.
- Higher likelihood of hospitalization and institutionalization.
- Greater dependency and need for support.
- Poorer quality of life and increased mortality.
26
Q
Outline the evidence-based management of frailty
A
- Comprehensive geriatric assessment: Multidisciplinary evaluation of medical, functional, and psychosocial issues.
- Individualized care plans: Address specific needs and goals.
- Physical activity: Tailored exercise programs to improve strength and balance.
- Nutrition: Ensure adequate intake of calories, protein, and micronutrients.
- Medication review: Minimize polypharmacy and adjust medications as needed.
27
Q
Briefly describe key steps in the management of hip fracture in older patients, appreciating both surgical and non-surgical aspects
A
- Preoperative care: Stabilize medical conditions, pain management, and hydration.
- Surgical treatment: Options include internal fixation, hemiarthroplasty, or total hip replacement.
- Postoperative care: Early mobilization, physical therapy, and fall prevention strategies.
- Rehabilitation: Focus on regaining function and independence.
- Non-surgical management: Reserved for patients who are not surgical candidates; includes pain control, physical therapy, and supportive care.
28
Q
Define the functions of the extra-embryonic structures and describe the key steps in their development
A
- Placenta: Functions include nutrient and gas exchange, waste removal, and hormone production. Development begins with implantation; trophoblast cells differentiate into cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast, forming chorionic villi.
- Amniotic sac: Cushions and protects the fetus; amniotic fluid allows fetal movement and growth. Develops from the amnion, which forms a fluid-filled cavity around the embryo.
- Yolk sac: Early site of blood cell and vessel formation. Develops from the hypoblast and is eventually integrated into the gut.
- Umbilical cord: Connects fetus to the placenta, containing two arteries and one vein. Develops from the connecting stalk.
29
Q
Relate pathological conditions of pregnancy to normal physiology with reference to gestational diabetes
A
- Normal physiology: Pregnancy induces insulin resistance to ensure glucose supply for the fetus.
- Gestational diabetes: Exaggerated insulin resistance leading to hyperglycemia. Diagnosed by glucose tolerance test; managed with diet, exercise, and insulin if needed. Increases risk of complications such as preeclampsia and macrosomia.
30
Q
Demonstrate awareness of the workings of integrated health and social care teams for people with an intellectual disability
A
- Team composition: Includes healthcare providers, social workers, educators, and therapists.
- Care coordination: Holistic approach to address medical, psychological, educational, and social needs.
- Communication: Regular meetings and updates among team members; involvement of patient and family in decision-making.
- Support services: Access to specialized programs and resources for education, employment, and daily living support.
31
Q
Perform a basic antenatal examination on a manikin competently
A
- Steps:
- Introduce and explain the procedure to the patient.
- Wash hands and use appropriate PPE.
- Measure fundal height: From the pubic symphysis to the top of the uterus.
- Palpate for fetal position: Identify fetal lie, presentation, and position.
- Auscultate fetal heart rate: Using a Doppler or fetoscope.
- Assess maternal vital signs: Blood pressure, heart rate, and urinalysis for protein and glucose.
32
Q
Understand what is meant by faltering growth, short stature, underweight, overweight, and obesity and how to recognize these
A
- Faltering growth: Weight or height falling below expected norms for age and sex.
- Short stature: Height more than 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and sex.
- Underweight: BMI below the 5th percentile for age.
- Overweight: BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles.
- Obesity: BMI above the 95th percentile.
33
Q
List common causes of growth faltering
A
- Nutritional: Poor dietary intake, malabsorption syndromes.
- Chronic illnesses: Cystic fibrosis, congenital heart disease, celiac disease.
- Endocrine disorders: Growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism, adrenal insufficiency.
- Genetic conditions: Turner syndrome, Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome.
- Environmental factors: Neglect, psychosocial deprivation.
34
Q
Briefly outline how genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors impact on growth
A
- Genetic: Determines potential height and growth velocity; conditions like achondroplasia and Marfan syndrome affect growth.
- Nutritional: Adequate nutrition is critical; deficiencies in calories, protein, vitamins, or minerals can stunt growth.
- Environmental: Stress, socioeconomic status, and access to healthcare and education influence growth patterns.
35
Q
Plot and interpret a weight and height chart
A
- Plotting: Mark the child’s weight and height on the appropriate growth chart for their age and sex.
- Interpretation: Compare measurements to percentiles; identify trends or deviations from normal growth patterns.
36
Q
Describe the role of growth assessment as part of child health surveillance
A
- Monitoring development: Regular measurements help track growth and development over time.
- Early detection: Identifies deviations from normal growth, prompting further investigation.
- Intervention: Guides timely interventions, whether nutritional, medical, or psychosocial.
37
Q
Identify common risk factors for falls in the older population
A
- Physical: Muscle weakness, poor balance, vision impairment.
- Medical conditions: Arthritis, diabetes, stroke, Parkinson’s disease.
- Medications: Sedatives, antidepressants, blood pressure medications.
- Environmental hazards: Clutter, poor lighting, slippery floors, loose rugs.
38
Q
Describe key factors in the clinical approach to falls prevention
A
- Assessment: Comprehensive evaluation including medical history, medication review, physical examination, and home safety assessment.
- Intervention: Strength and balance exercises, assistive devices, medication adjustments, vision correction, and environmental modifications.
- Education: Informing patients and caregivers about fall prevention strategies and safe practices.
39
Q
Outline the concepts of frailty and multiple morbidity
A
- Frailty: A clinical syndrome characterized by decreased strength, endurance, and physiological function, increasing vulnerability to adverse health outcomes.
- Multiple morbidity: The coexistence of two or more chronic conditions in an individual, complicating management and increasing healthcare needs.
40
Q
Describe the consequences of the frailty syndrome
A
- ncreased risk of falls and fractures.
- Higher rates of hospitalization and institutionalization.
- Greater dependency on caregivers.
- Reduced quality of life and increased mortality.
41
Q
Outline the evidence-based management of frailty
A
- Comprehensive geriatric assessment: Evaluates medical, functional, and psychosocial factors.
- Individualized care plans: Tailored interventions focusing on the patient’s specific needs.
- Physical activity: Regular exercise to improve strength, balance, and endurance.
- Nutrition: Ensuring adequate intake of nutrients, possibly with supplements.
- Polypharmacy management: Regular review and rationalization of medications.
42
Q
Briefly describe key steps in the management of hip fracture in older patients, appreciating both surgical and non-surgical aspects
A
- Preoperative care: Stabilize the patient’s condition, manage pain, ensure adequate hydration and nutrition.
- Surgical treatment: Options include internal fixation, hemiarthroplasty, or total hip arthroplasty, depending on fracture type and patient condition.
- Postoperative care: Early mobilization with physical therapy, pain management, prevention of complications such as deep vein thrombosis.
- Rehabilitation: Comprehensive rehabilitation program to restore function and independence.
- Non-surgical management: Pain control, bed rest, and supportive care for patients unable to undergo surgery; involves careful monitoring and prevention of complications.
