Case ILOs

Question 1

How is body temperature normally regulated?

Answer 1

By the hypothalamus, which maintains homeostasis through thermoregulatory responses like sweating, vasodilation, and shivering.

Question 2

What causes fever?

Answer 2

Pyrogens (e.g., cytokines like IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α) reset the hypothalamic set point, leading to increased body temperature.

Question 3

Define sepsis.

Answer 3

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection.

Question 4

What are physiological derangements in sepsis?

Answer 4

Hypotension, tachycardia, fever, altered mental status, and organ hypoperfusion.

Question 5

What are metabolic derangements in sepsis?

Answer 5

Hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis, and increased lactate production due to impaired tissue oxygenation.

Question 6

What are neutrophils, and what is their function?

Answer 6

Neutrophils are white blood cells derived from bone marrow; they are the first responders in acute inflammation and phagocytose pathogens.

Question 7

Where do lymphocytes originate, and what is their role?

Answer 7

Lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow; B cells produce antibodies, and T cells mediate cellular immunity.

Question 8

What are macrophages, and what is their function?

Answer 8

Macrophages are derived from monocytes; they phagocytose debris/pathogens and release cytokines to recruit other immune cells.

Question 9

What initiates the acute inflammatory response?

Answer 9

Recognition of pathogens or injury by pattern recognition receptors (e.g., TLRs) on immune cells.

Question 10

Name key inflammatory mediators and their functions.

Answer 10

Histamine (vasodilation), prostaglandins (pain and fever), cytokines (recruit immune cells), and complement proteins (opsonization).

Question 11

What are the five hallmarks of acute inflammation, and why do they occur?

Answer 11

Redness and heat (vasodilation), swelling (increased vascular permeability), pain (stimulation of nociceptors), and loss of function (tissue damage or edema).

Question 12

What are the possible outcomes of acute inflammation?

Answer 12

Resolution, chronic inflammation, abscess formation, or fibrosis/scarring.

Question 13

What is the pathological hallmark of abscess formation?

Answer 13

Accumulation of pus surrounded by a fibrous capsule.

Question 14

Where do T and B cells originate and mature?

Answer 14

Both originate in the bone marrow; T cells mature in the thymus, and B cells mature in the bone marrow.

Question 15

What are the main types of T cells?

Answer 15

Helper T cells (CD4+), cytotoxic T cells (CD8+), and regulatory T cells.

Question 16

What is the role of B cells?

Answer 16

To produce specific antibodies that bind antigens and facilitate pathogen clearance.

Question 17

How do antibodies protect against infection?

Answer 17

By neutralizing pathogens, opsonizing for phagocytosis, and activating the complement system.

Question 18

What are the main antibody classes?

Answer 18

IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD

Question 19

What is the role of lymph nodes?

Answer 19

Filtering lymph, trapping pathogens, and activating lymphocytes.

Question 20

What is the role of the spleen?

Answer 20

Filtering blood, removing old red blood cells, and hosting immune responses.

Question 21

What is the thymus responsible for?

Answer 21

T cell maturation and education.

Question 22

What is the role of bone marrow?

Answer 22

Production of all blood cells, including lymphocytes.

Question 23

What are the major classes of bacteria?

Answer 23

Gram-positive, Gram-negative, anaerobes, aerobes, and spirochetes.