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Anatomy & Physiology II > Cardiovascular System > Flashcards

Cardiovascular System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three major types of Plasma Proteins?

A

1.) Albumins
-Most abundant
-Maintains osmotic pressure of plasma.
-Helps to transport lipids.
-Made by liver

2.)Globulins
-Act as transport proteins and antibodies
-Antibodies-attach to bacteria and viruses

3.)Fibrinogen
-Functions in blood clotting, converting to fibrin
-Made by liver

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2
Q

Serum

A

The portion of plasma remaining after coagulation of blood, during which process the plasma protein fibrinogen is converted to fibrin and remains behind in the clot.
(Plasma, minus the clotting proteins like fibrinogen).

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3
Q

What percent of plasma proteins is synthesized by liver?

A

90%

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4
Q

Liver disorders can result in what?

A

Altered blood composition and function

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5
Q

What are Erythrocytes also called?

A

Red Blood Cells

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6
Q

Erythrocytes

A

A type of blood cell that is made in the bone marrow and found in the blood.

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7
Q

What protein do erythrocytes contain?

A

Contain a protein called hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.

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8
Q

Biconcave

A

Concave on both sides of a structure, usually referring to a disc or a lens. The structure of mature red blood cells (erythrocytes), which is a flattened cell that has assume a biconcave shape.

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9
Q

Do Erythrocytes contain nucleus or organelles?

A

No because the absence of a nucleus is an adaptation of the red blood cell for its role. It allows the red blood cell to contain more hemoglobin and, therefore, carry more oxygen molecules. It also allows the cell to have its distinctive bi-concave shape which aids diffusion.

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10
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Iron-containing protein in the blood of many animals—in the red blood cells (erythrocytes) of vertebrates—that transports oxygen to the tissues.

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11
Q

Hemoglobin forms an unstable reversible bond with?

A

Oxygen.

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12
Q

What happens to the shade of red if the blood is not oxygenated?

A

The shade of red changes slightly if the blood is not oxygenated, but it is never blue or purple.

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13
Q

Why can veins look blue through the skin?

A

Because more blue light is reflected by the layers of skin, protein, and fat that cover blood vessels.

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14
Q

What is the Hemoglobin Structure composed of?

A

Hemoglobin comprises four subunits, each having one polypeptide chain and one heme group.

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15
Q

Heme

A

The part of certain molecules that contains iron. The heme part of hemoglobin is the substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.

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16
Q

Each Subunit contains?

A

Heme with an Iron Atom.

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17
Q

Oxygen binds to _______, carbon dioxide binds to the _________ __________.

A

Oxygen binds to heme, carbon dioxide binds to the globular subunits

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18
Q

O2

A

Abbreviation for oxygen consumption. Symbol for the molecular formula for oxygen.

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19
Q

O2 Heme bond is _____ ______ in the Hemoglobin Function.

A

Fairly Weak

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20
Q

High Plasma O2 causes what?

A

Hemoglobin to gain O2 until saturated.

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21
Q

High Plasma O2 occurs?

A

As blood circulates through lung capillaries.

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22
Q

CO2

A

Carbon Dioxide

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23
Q

Low plasma O2 and high CO2 causes the hemoglobin to release?

A

O2

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24
Q

Low plasma O2 and high CO2 occur?

A

As blood circulates through systemic capillaries.

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25
Q

RBC’s makes up what percent of formed elements?

A

99.9%

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26
Q

RBC’s are measured in _____ ______ cell count.

A

red blood.

  • Men have 5.4 million/µL
  • Women have 4.8 million/µL
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27
Q

RBC’s are measured as a percentage of _______ ________.

A

Percentage of whole blood.

  • Hematocrit in men is 46 percent
  • In women, it’s 42 percent
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28
Q

RBC’s contain ________ ___________ ___________.

A

Pigment molecule Hemoglobin.

  • Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
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29
Q

A healthy individual will have 250 million _____________ in each drop of blood.

A

250 million erythrocytes.

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30
Q

Each _____ _____ cell has a lifespan of about ____ days, so they are constantly being replaced.

A

Each red blood cell has a lifespan of about 120 days, so they are constantly being replaced.

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31
Q

What are two advantages does the structure of RBC’s unique biconcave shape provide?

A
  • Increased surface area increases rate of diffusion
  • Increased flexibility to squeeze through narrow capillaries
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32
Q

During RBC formation __________ are lost.

A

Organelles are lost. During RBC formation organelles are lost

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33
Q

What are 3 things about the Erythrocyte’s Lifespan?

A
  • Red blood cells wear out in 3-4 months.
  • Special white blood cells in the spleen or liver will filter them out.
  • Red blood cells are anucleate, so they cannot divide by mitosis.
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34
Q

The spleen is a brown, flat, abdominal organ that:

A
  • Removes and recycles old red blood cells.
  • Holds a reserve a blood.
  • Produces antibodies, proteins that attach to and disable bacteria and viruses.
  • Filters bacteria and viruses.
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35
Q

Lymph nodes

A

A small bean-shaped structure that is part of the body’s immune system. Lymph nodes filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight infection and disease.

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36
Q

Lymph nodes contain :

A

Lymph nodes contain large numbers of leukocytes that help to filter bacteria, viruses, foreign particles, and cancer cells.

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37
Q

Red blood cells are anucleate, so they cannot ______ ____ ______.

A

Red blood cells are anucleate, so they cannot divide by mitosis

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38
Q

Hematopoesis or erythryocyte production occurs within?

A

Occurs within red bone marrow, and is regulated by the kidneys.

39
Q

Hemolyze

A

To produce hemolysis or liberation of the hemoglobin from red blood cells.

40
Q

If RBCs _______ in bloodstream, Hb breaks down in ______.

A

If RBCs hemolyze in bloodstream, Hb breaks down in blood.

41
Q

Kidneys filter out ____.

A

HB(Hemoglobin)

42
Q

If a lot of RBCs rupture at once it causes ____________, indicated by reddish-brown ______.

A

If a lot of RBCs rupture at once it causes hemoglobinuria, indicated by reddish-brown urine.

43
Q

Most RBCs are phagocytized in _____, ______, and ______ ________.
Hemoglobin components are __________.

A

Most RBCs are phagocytized in liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
Hb components are recycled.

44
Q

Three steps of Hemoglobin Recycling?

A

1.) Proteins called Globin are broken into amino acids.
2.) Heme is stripped of iron, converted to biliverdin.
~Biliverdin is converted to bilirubin, orange-yellow.
~Liver absorbs bilirubin, it becomes part of bile.
~If not put into bile, tissues become yellow, jaundiced.
3.) Iron can be stored or released into blood to bind with transferrin.

45
Q

Blood cell production is controlled through a ________ ___________ cycle.

A

Blood cell production is controlled through a negative feedback cycle.

46
Q

What are two effects of blood cell production being controlled through a negative feed back cycle?

A

1.) Drop in blood O2 levels:
~Kidneys release the hormone erythropoietin → 
Bone marrow releases more red blood cells.
2.) Normal O2 levels:
~Kidneys stop producing erythropoietin → Blood cell production stops.

47
Q

Erythropoietin

A

A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the kidney in the adult and by the liver in the fetus, which acts on stem cells of the bone marrow to stimulate red blood cell production (erythropoiesis). (EPO).

48
Q

Erythropoietin target tissue is _______ stem cell tissue.

A

Target tissue is myeloid stem cell tissue.
~ Stimulates increase in cell division
~Speeds up rate of maturation of RBCs
~Essential for patients recovering from blood loss
~EPO infusions can help cancer patients recover from
~RBC loss due to chemotherapy

49
Q

Regulation of erythropoiesis requires ______ _____, _____, _______, _____, and ____ vitamins.

A

Requires amino acids, iron, copper, zinc, and B vitamins.

50
Q

Regulation of erythropoiesis is stimulated by ____ _____ ______, called _______.

A

Stimulated by low tissue oxygen, called hypoxia.

51
Q

Hypoxia

A

Diminished availability of oxygen to the body tissues;

52
Q

Kidney hypoxia triggers release of ____________.

A

Kidney hypoxia triggers release of erythropoietin.
~When blood flow to kidney decreases
~When anemia occurs
~When oxygen content of air declines
~When damage to respiratory membrane occurs

53
Q

Polycythemia

A

An increase in the total red blood cell mass of the blood.

54
Q

Excessive erythrocyte production causes ___________.

A

Excessive erythrocyte production causes polycythemia, where blood becomes so thick that it impairs circulation.

55
Q

Anemia

A

Is a condition in which you lack enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to your body’s tissues. (Low Hemoglobin).

56
Q

A deficiency in red blood cells causes _______.

A

A deficiency in red blood cells causes anemia.

57
Q

Anemia can have a wide variety of causes, including:

A

Anemia can have a wide variety of causes, including:
~Low hematocrit-the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood.
~Deficiency in B-complex vitamins.
Lack of iron intake.

58
Q

Symptoms of Anemia include what two things?

A

~ Muscle fatigue and weakness
~ Lack of energy in general

59
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells. They help to combat injuries and attack microorganisms invading the body. Types include granulocytes (eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes).

60
Q

_____ blood cells, or leukocytes, circulate throughout _____ and fight disease and infection.

A

White blood cells, or leukocytes, circulate throughout blood and fight disease and infection.
~ The most common 
type of leukocyte is 
the neutrophil, 
which can leave 
blood vessels and 
phagocytize 
bacteria, dead cells, 
or other debris.

61
Q

What are 4 things about white blood cells?

A

1.) WBC’s
~ Larger than RBCs, involved in immune responses.
~Contain nucleus and other organelles and lack hemoglobin.
2.) Less numerous than RBC’s
3.) Most have shorter life span than RBC’s
4.) Will leave blood vessel
~Emigration

62
Q

Granulocytes

A

White blood cells with cytoplasm that contains granules.
~Contain abundant granules within the cytoplasm
~Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

63
Q

Agranulocytes

A

A white blood cell without granules in its cytoplasm.
~Granules are fewer and less obvious
~Lymphocytes and monocytes

64
Q

What are the 5 types of WBCs?

A

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, Lymphocytes.
~Respond to any threat
~Are part of the nonspecific immune response

65
Q

Neutrophils

A

A phagocytic, granulocytic white blood cell that occurs in large numbers in the blood, typically moving into tissue after injury or infection, where it destroys bacteria and other pathogens and releases cytokines.

66
Q

Eosinophils

A

A leukocyte with coarse, round granules present.

67
Q

Basophils

A

(biology), cells whose protoplasm contains granules that are stained with basic dyes. The term “basophil” is used to designate one of the types of white blood cells (in a healthy person basophils constitute 0.5–1 percent of all the white blood cells) or one of the types of cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary.

68
Q

Monocytes

A

A form of nongranular white blood cells (agranulocytes) that form in the bone marrow. They usually have a kidney-shaped nucleus and a weakly basophilic cytoplasm. In human blood, monocytes normally account for 4–8 percent of the leucocytes. Their diameter is 12–20 microns. Monocytes are capable of phagocytosis and, upon separating from the blood into the tissues, become macrophages.

69
Q

Lymphocytes

A

A variety of white blood cells (agranular leukocytes) in vertebrates and man.
~Respond to specific, individual pathogens
~Are responsible for specific immune response

70
Q

What are the 3 major groups of Lymphocytes?

A

1.) Natural killer cells
~ capable of recognizing cells that do not express “self” proteins on their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers.
2.) B cells
~ produces the antibodies that bind to specific foreign or abnormal components of plasma membranes.
Also referred to as humoral (body fluid) immunity.
3.) T cells
~ provide cellular-level immunity by physically attacking foreign or diseased cells.

71
Q

Differential Count

A

The relative number of leukocytes–eg segmented and band forms of granulocytes, eosinophils, lymphocytes and monocytes in the peripheral circulation, expressed in percentages of the total WBC count.

72
Q

Leukopenia

A

Is a reduction in total WBCs

73
Q

Leukocytosis

A

Is excessive numbers of WBCs; often nonfunctional.

74
Q

Leukemia

A

Is an extremely high WBC count and is a cancer of blood-forming tissues.

75
Q

Hemocytoblasts

A

A progenitor cell in the bone marrow that can replicate itself as well as produce precursor cells of the various blood cell lineages.

76
Q

Thymosins

A

A polypeptide hormone that restores T-cell function in a thymectomized animal.

77
Q

What two colony stimulating-factors do thymosins produce?

A

~ Produce lymphoid stem cells
~ Differentiate into lymphocytes, called lymphopoiesis
~ Migrate from bone marrow to lymphatic tissues
~ Produce myeloid stem cells
~ Differentiate into all other formed element

78
Q

Platelets

A

Platelets are fragments of cells that arise from very large cells produced in bone marrow.

79
Q

Plasma

A

1.) The fluid portion of the lymph.
2.) The fluid portion of the blood, in which the formed elements (blood cells) are suspended. Plasma is to be distinguished from serum, which is plasma from which the fibrinogen has been separated in the process of clotting. Called also blood plasma

80
Q

Blood plasma is mostly (____%) water, but also contains many _____, _____, ______, _____ _____, and other nutrients.

A

Blood plasma is mostly (92%) water, but also contains many proteins, lipids, glucose, blood gases, and other nutrients.
~The proteins maintain the 
osmotic pressure of the 
plasma, help in immunity, 
and forming blood clots.
~The electrolytes help 
maintain the pH of blood.

81
Q

Hemostasis

A

Is the stoppage of bleeding from a break in a blood vessel.

82
Q

Platelet

A

The smallest of the formed elements in blood, a disk-shaped, non-nucleated blood element with a fragile membrane, formed in the red bone marrow by fragmentation of megakaryocytes.
~ Platelets adhere to the severed vessel, due to the rough surface and exposed collagen fibers.

83
Q

Prothrombin

A

A glycoprotein present in the plasma that is converted into thrombin by extrinsic thromboplastin during the second stage of blood clotting; called also factor II.

84
Q

Thrombin

A

1.) The activated form of coagulation factor II (prothrombin), which catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.

85
Q

An inactive enzyme called _________ activates into ______, which forms a meshlike network to clot the _____.

A

An inactive enzyme called prothrombin activates into thrombin, which forms a meshlike network to clot the blood.

86
Q

An injury to a _____ ______ initiates the process of _______.

A

An injury to a blood vessel initiates the process of hemostasis.

87
Q

Blood clotting involves three steps :

A

1.) Vascular spasm constricts the flow of blood.
2.) A platelet plug forms to temporarily seal small openings in the vessel.
3.) Coagulation then enables the repair of the vessel wall once the leakage of blood has stopped.

88
Q

The synthesis of fibrin in blood clots involves either an _______ pathway or an _______ pathway, both of which lead to a _______ pathway.

A

The synthesis of fibrin in blood clots involves either an intrinsic pathway or an extrinsic pathway, both of which lead to a common pathway.

89
Q

Intrinsic Pathway

A

Situated within or belonging solely to the organ or body part on which it acts. Used of certain nerves and muscles.

90
Q

Extrinsic Pathway

A

Originating outside of the part where found or on which it acts; denoting especially a muscle, such as extrinsic muscles of hand.

91
Q

Hemophilia

A

Is a hereditary disorder that impairs the body’s ability to control blood clotting.
~The platelet plug still forms, but fibrin does not.

92
Q

Thrombus

A

Is a blood clot in a vessel that is not broken. This can be deadly if it forms near a vital organ like the heart.

93
Q

Embolus

A

Is a 
thrombus that 
breaks away, floats 
in the bloodstream, 
and clogs a vessel 
farther away 
(e.g. the brain).

Anatomy & Physiology II (2 decks)

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