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PHA 6117 > carbohydrates in pharmacognosy > Flashcards

carbohydrates in pharmacognosy Flashcards

1
Q

structurally polyhydroxylated ketones or aldehydes

Can exist as one distinct carbohydrate molecule (monosaccharide) or as repeating structures of the monosaccharide units (oligo-and polysaccharides)

A

carbohydrates

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2
Q

derived from photosynthesis

A

monosaccharides

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3
Q

involves formation of UDP-monosaccharide

A

oligo- & polysaccharide

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4
Q

main organelle for photosynthesis

A

chloroplast

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5
Q

site for light reactions

A

surface membrane of the thylakoid

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6
Q

Produces ATPs and NADPH that are used by the cell to convert carbon dioxide into an organic molecule

A

calvin cycle

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7
Q

initially produces a 3-carbon sugar
which is known as 3-PGAL (3-Phosphoglyceraldehyde) which then produces the sugar CH2O

A

calvin cycle

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8
Q

where is glucose stored

A

cytoplasm

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9
Q

other name for glucose

A

cystolic sugar, dextrose, blood sugar, grape sugar, physiologic sugar

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10
Q

site for calvin cycle/ dark reaction

A

stroma

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11
Q

where is sucrose synthesized?

A

cytosol

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12
Q

what enzymes helped in synthesizing sucrose

A

sucrose 6-phosphate synthase & sucrose 6-phosphate phosphatase

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13
Q

sweetest disaccharide

A

Sucrose

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14
Q

sweetest monosaccharide

A

fructose

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15
Q

where is glucose added in the growing chain of polysaccharide

A

nonreducing end

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16
Q

animal starch, reserved food for human cells, specifically the liver cells and the muscle cells

A

glycogen

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17
Q

smallest unit of carbohydrates

A

monosaccharides

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18
Q

monosaccharides are classified by:

A

functional group (aldose vs ketose) & number of carbons

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19
Q

D-or L-isomerism depends on the ______

A

penultimate carbon

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20
Q

characteristics of monosaccharides

A

Crystalline, water-soluble and sweet

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21
Q

example of aldopentose

A

ribose, arabinose

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22
Q

example of aldohexose

A

Glucose, Galactose

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23
Q

example of ketohexose

A

fructose

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24
Q

example of ketopentose

A

ribulose

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25
Q

L-glucose (less or more active)

A

less active

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26
Q

D-glucose (less or more active)

A

more active

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27
Q

5 membered ring

A

furanose

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28
Q

6 membered ring

A

pyranose

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29
Q

anomeric carbon

A

carbon w/ 2 oxygens

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30
Q

anomeric OH down

A

alpha

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31
Q

anomeric OH up

A

beta

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32
Q

glucose chemical nature

A

aldohexose

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33
Q

source of glucose

A

Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch (Starch is a polysaccharide of glucose)

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34
Q

use of glucose

A

Sweetening agent

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35
Q

[derivatives of glucose]
thick, syrupy liquid from incomplete hydrolysis of starch

A

liquid glucose

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36
Q

[derivatives of glucose]
- electrolyte replenisher, Given through IV
- Used to treat low blood calcium, high blood potassium, and magnesium toxicity

A

Calcium gluconate

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37
Q

[derivatives of glucose]
- calcium sources from 7C and 5C glucose derivatives
- Given through IV
- Used for hypocalcemia (when blood’s calcium level is low)

A

Calcium gluceptate and levulinate

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38
Q

[derivatives of glucose]
hematinic, given for iron deficiency anemia

A

Ferrous gluconate

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39
Q

Is glucose reducing or non-reducing?

A

reducing

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40
Q

other name of fructose

A

Levulose, fruit sugar

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41
Q

chemical nature of fructose

A

Ketohexose

In nature, in furanose form; isolated in crystalline form as pyranose

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42
Q

source of fructose

A

isomerization of glucose by Streptomyces through the enzyme glucose isomerase

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43
Q

natural source of fructose

A

Fruits and honey; hydrolysis of inulin

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44
Q

uses of fructose

A

Food for diabetic patients, for infant feeding formula, for fructose injection

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45
Q

chemical nature of galactose

A

Aldohexose

C4 epimer of glucose

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46
Q

source of galactose

A

Milk (as lactose) and neuronal fibers (as galactoceramides)

Convertible to glucose in the human body (enters glycolysis after 4 steps)

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47
Q

other name of xylose

A

wood sugar

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48
Q

chemical nature of xylose

A

aldopentose

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49
Q

source of xylose

A

Boiled corn cobs, straw, heartwood of deciduous trees, and other materials soaked in dilute acids to hydrolyze
its polymer form xylan

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50
Q

uses of xylose

A

Diagnostic aid in conditions with intestinal malabsorption (ex. Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, etc.)

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51
Q

Present in hemicellulose

A

xylose

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52
Q

Can be used as a sweetener and at the same time they can be converted into ethanol

A

xylose

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53
Q

Carbohydrates that have 3 to 9 monomeric units but there are books that say that even disaccharides are examples of ______

A

oligosaccharides

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54
Q

glucose + glucose via alpha 1–>4 glycosidic bond

A

maltose

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55
Q

source of maltose

A

diastatic fermentation of barley (Hordeum vulgare) and other grains

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56
Q

use of maltose

A

Sweetener, tonicity adjuster, component of beers

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57
Q

synonyms of sucrose

A

Table sugar, saccharum

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58
Q

Glucose + fructose

A

sucrose

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59
Q

negative on Benedict’s, Fehling’s, Barfoed’s, or Tollen’s tests. non reducing sugar

A

sucrose, trehalose

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60
Q

sources of sucrose

A

● Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) through limp slivers called cossettes
● Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
● Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)

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61
Q

uses of sucrose

A

Demulcent, coating agent, sweetening agent, syrups, preservative, anti-oxidant

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62
Q

sucrose biosynthesis

A

G6P can be converted to UDP-glucose. Then, UDP- glucose goes through 2 steps to become sucrose in plants

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63
Q

Found in brown seaweed, widely distributed in fungi

A

trehalose

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64
Q

Glucose + glucose via α-(1->1)-α glycosidic bond

A

trehalose

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65
Q

trehalose is used as a supplement for diabetes (T/F)

A

T

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66
Q

Glucose + galactose on a β(1->4) glycosidic bond

A

lactose

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67
Q

source: Milk of cow (Bos taurus)
● From the crystallization of whey, a by-product of cheese production

A

lactose

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68
Q

use of lactose

A

Tablet diluent
For uniform distribution of ingredient and increase the size

69
Q

[derivatives of lactose]
fat globules united by churning (globules on top)

A

butter

70
Q

[derivatives of lactose]
liquid after globules unite (milk left below)

A

buttermilk

71
Q

[derivatives of lactose]
milk without cream/globules

A

skimmed milk

72
Q

[derivatives of lactose]
(coagulated casein) – skimmed milk treated with rennin/rennet
○ Further treated/fermented to become cheese

A

coagulum

73
Q

[derivatives of lactose]
skimmed milk without coagulated proteins

A

whey

74
Q

[variations of milk]
partially evaporated, sweetened milk
○ It is very viscous due to addition of a lot of sugar

A

condensed milk

75
Q

[variations of milk]
unsweetened milk

A

evaporated milk

76
Q

[variations of milk]
milk evaporated with malt extract

A

malted milk

77
Q

[variations of milk]
alcoholic beverage made from fermented
mare’s milk; made originally by nomads of central Asia

A

kumyss

78
Q

chemical nature of lactulose

A

Product from the alkaline rearrangement (tautomerization) of lactose
● Where glucose is transformed to fructose

79
Q

source of lactulose

A

Semi-synthetic

80
Q

use of lactulose

A

Laxative (Dulphalac), employed for a disease known as Hepatic Encephalopathy

81
Q

lactulose is somewhat toxic to renal tissues (T/F)

A

T

82
Q

Malatose group (2 glucose 1→ 4 glycosidic bond)+ glucose residue

A

maltotriose

83
Q

products of partial hydrolysis of starch (amylase, glucosidase)
α-glucosidase inhibitors – inhibits intestinal absorption of sugars; an oral hypoglycemic agent (specifically for postprandial sugar)

A

dextrins

84
Q

glu + glu + fru (from Gentiana spp.)

A

gentianose

85
Q

glu + gal + fru (from many seeds, such as cottonseed)

A

raffinose

86
Q

glu + gal + gal + fru (from Stachys japonica)

A

stachyose

87
Q

Plant acids are products of formation of carboxylic groups. (T/F)

A

T

88
Q

Sugar alcohols are products of reduction of an aldose sugar? (T/F)

A

T

89
Q

Which of the following sugar acids have the formula of C4H6O6

Formic
Oxalic
Tartaric
Citric
Lactic

A

Tartaric

90
Q

Most important sugars

A

aldehydes

91
Q

gives rise to sugar ACIDS (functional group is carboxylic acid)

A

oxidation

92
Q

gives rise to sugar ALCOHOLS

A

reduction

93
Q

products from oxidation

A

cherry juice & plant acids

94
Q

Organic acids derived from plants containing 2-6 C atoms and 2-3 carboxyl groups

A

plant acids

95
Q

uses of plant acids

A

Acidulants in effervescent formulations/ component of buffers
● Acidulants to control the pH
● Act as anticoagulant by chelating calcium in the blood

96
Q

● Related acids – isocitric acid (isomer), aconitic acid (dehydrated form)
● Tricarboxylic acid that is commonly found in citrus fruits
● Used as an excipient in pharmaceutical preparations due to its antioxidant property
● Used to maintain the stability of active ingredients
● Used as a preservative

A

citric acid (6C)

97
Q

● Acidulant in infant feeding formula
● Sugar used for infant feeding is fructose
● Product of anaerobic fermentation of glucose

A

lactic acid (3C)

98
Q

● By-product of wine industry
● Present in grapes and tamarind
● Imparts a tart taste
● An important solid acidulant
● Most water-soluble

A

tartaric acid (4C)

99
Q

Present in apple

A

malic acid (4C)

100
Q

● Present in kamias (Averrhoa bilimbi), balimbing (Averrhoa carambola), and gabi (Colocasia esculenta); oxidation product of ethylene glycol poisoning
● Toxic at high concentrations (5 to 15 grams) and may cause toxic poisoning in humans
● Clinical manifestations are convulsion and cardiovascular collapse

A

oxalic acid (2C)

101
Q

● Ant bites, volatile poison (oxidation product of methanol poisoning)
○ Lambanog - can cause methanol poisoning
● Simplest
● Methanol ingestion can cause histotoxic hypoxia
● Sufficiently large doses of Formic acid cause unconsciousness and death
● Formic acid from methanol ingestion can cause acidosis which can lead to urinary acidification

A

formic acid (1C)

102
Q

● Present in onion varieties which make it resistant to attacks of a particular fungus

A

Protocatechuic acid

103
Q

● Precursor of aromatic compounds/ amino acids
● Very important compound in the production of secondary metabolites
● acid pathways
● Examples: alkaloids, glycosides, caffein, vanillin
● The first molecule of _______ was isolated from an anise fruit

A

shikimic acid

104
Q

● Cofactor of collagen hydroxylases
● Also called vitamin c
● Deficiency of vitamin C is called scurvy
● Commonly associated with natural water-soluble Vitamin C
● Boosts your immune system because this is a very powerful reducing agent

A

ascorbic acid

105
Q

examples of a-hydroxy acid

A

lactic, tartaric, citric, malic

106
Q

what is a-hydroxy acid used for?

A

Used for skin exfoliation, Exfoliates the surface cells, provides extra emollient for very dry skin, renews, smooths, and softens

107
Q

Which plant active is the precursor or fatty acid

A

Acetic Acid

108
Q

What is the product when there is reduction

A

Sugar ethanol

109
Q

products of sugar metabolism from reduction

A

ethanol, mannitol, sorbitol

110
Q

source of cherry juice

A

Ripe fruit of cherry (Prunus cerasus)

111
Q

main component of cherry juice

A

Malic acid

112
Q

uses of cherry juice

A

Preparation of cherry syrup to mask the taste of sour drugs

*Natural cherry juice contains pectin, which causes incompatibilities especially to alcoholic preparations; in order to treat this, 0.1% benzoic acid is added and left for a week

113
Q

ethanol chemical formula

A

C2H50H

114
Q

source of ethanol

A

Fermentation of yeast (Lactic acid fermentation)
(if for wine production), catalytic hydration of ethylene (if for solvent/ disinfectant purpose)
● Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Baker’s yeast)
● Saccharomyces carlsbergensis

115
Q

usp definition of ethanol

A

94.9% w/v (92.3% w/w) at 15.56oC
(Not more than 96%)

116
Q

uses of ethanol

A

low concentration — CNS stimulant
higher concentration — CNS depressant

117
Q

ABV of Brandy, Whiskey, and Rum

A

40% alcohol

118
Q

ABV of beer

A

3-13%

119
Q

ABV of wine

A

8-14%

120
Q

from distillation of wine (grapes)

A

Brandy

121
Q

from distillation of malted grain

A

whiskey

122
Q

from distillation of fermented molasses

A

rum

123
Q

source of mannitol

A

Manna (Fraxinus ornus)

124
Q

Mannitol is commonly produced today by

A

hydrogenation of fructose (Ketose-C2)

125
Q

uses of mannitol

A

Osmotic diuretic (IV) - for urination, kidney failure, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressures (increase the excretion of fluids and ions)
- it inhibits reabsorption of water and sodium

osmotic laxative (oral) - to treat constipation; can use lactulose
- pull water from the surrounding tissues to soften the stool

126
Q

synonym of sorbitol

A

Glucitol

127
Q

source of sorbitol

A

Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia)
Nowadays, is produced by Bacterial biotechnology.

128
Q

use of sorbitol

A

Sweetener (tastes half as sweet as sucrose)

129
Q

It is not absorbed on oral ingestion so it is used in the manufacture of toothpastes and chewing gums because of its humectant properties (moisturizer). An inert compound

A

sorbitol

130
Q

by-product of glucose metabolism whenever a person has hyperglycemia (via the polyol pathway).

A

sorbitol

131
Q

pharmaceutical carrier for cosmetics industry, sorbitol is used as an emulsion stabilizer

Produced via catalytic hydrogenation of D-glucose to D-sorbitol

A

sorbitol

132
Q

Glucose accumulation can lead to sorbitol excess, which depletes NADPH levels -> lower antioxidant activity -> possible oxidative damage to cells and microvasculature (especially in diabetics)

A

polyol pathway

133
Q

polyol pathway is good (T/F)

A

F
Glucose reacts with aldose reductase to create sorbitol, then reacted with sorbitol dehydrogenase to make fructose. Pag konti ang NADH bababa yung antioxidant activity ( low glutathione level)–can cause retinopathy. Formation of sorbitol, increase in NAD and NADH can cause retinopathy that is what POLYOL PATHWAY IS BAD

134
Q

Which of the following carbohydrate contain the a1-4, a1-6 glycosidic bond
A. Starch (Amylose and Amylopectin)
B. Glycogen(Glucose)
C. Dextran
D. Both A and B
E. Both A B and D

A

Both A and B

135
Q

most abundant carbohydrate on earth

A

cellulose

136
Q

2nd most abundant carbohydrate on earth

A

hemicellulose

137
Q

3rd most abundant carbohydrate on earth

A

lignin

138
Q

○ Consists of only one type of monomer which isexemplified
○ Although they have the same type of sugar monomers, branching occurs at a specific part of the chain (ex. every 20 ft.)
○ Starch (amylose, amylopectin) and glycogen

A

Homopolysaccharides

139
Q

○ Several types of monomers are present in a chain
○ Gums and mucilage

A

Heteropolysaccharides

140
Q

enumerate the polysaccharides

A

starch, glycogen, inulin, dextran, cellulose, gums & mucilages, pectins, glycoaminoglycans

141
Q

enumerate the monosaccharides

A

glucose, fructose, galactose, xylose

142
Q

enumerate the oligosaccharides

A

maltose, sucrose, trehalose, lactose, lactulose, maltotriose, dextrins, gentianose, raffinose, stachyose

143
Q

Polymer of glucose linked by α(1->4) and α(1->6) glycosidic bonds

A

starch

144
Q

sources of starch

A

mature grain of corn (Zea mays), mature grain of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum)

145
Q

uses of starch

A

Tablet filler, binder and disintegrant
Antidote for iodine poisoning

146
Q

[MODIFIED STARCHES]
Starch that is chemically or mechanically processed to rupture all or part of the granules; tablet binder; Comes from waxy corn or tapioca

A

Pregelatinized starch

147
Q

[MODIFIED STARCHES]
Disintegrating agent

A

Sodium starch glycollate

148
Q

[MODIFIED STARCHES]
Plasma expander at 6%;
Most molecular substitution

A

Hetastarch

149
Q

Enzymes that break down starch

A

Amylases

150
Q

α-amylases

A

amylopsin, ptyalin
Random splitting of α-1,4 links

151
Q

Enzyme in pancreatic juice

A

amylopsin

152
Q

saliva

A

ptyalin

153
Q

End-product of alpha-amylases

A

mixture of glucose, maltose, amylopectin

154
Q

β-amylases

A

Capable of splitting α-1,4 bonds
Remove maltose unit from non-reducing end of polysaccharides at branching points: maltose & dextrins (incomplete hydrolysis)

155
Q

end product of beta-amylases

A

nearly pure maltose

156
Q

Linear
250-300 units Linked by α (1→4) only

A

amylose (β-amylose)

157
Q

More soluble (amylose/ amylopectin)

A

amylose (β-amylose)

158
Q

iodine test: deep blue

A

amylose (β-amylose)

159
Q

25% abundance

A

amylose (β-amylose)

160
Q

Branched
1000 or more glucose units
Linked by α (1→4) with α (1→6) every 25 glucose units

A

amylopectin (α-amylose)

161
Q

Less soluble (provides the paste-forming property of starch) (amylose/ amylopectin)

A

amylopectin (α-amylose)

162
Q

iodine test (blue violet/ purple)

A

amylopectin (α-amylose)

163
Q

75% abundance

A

amylopectin (α-amylose)

164
Q

Starch is stored in plastids

A

amyloplast

165
Q

Stored in oil

A

elaioplast

166
Q

Chlorophyll pigment

A

chloroplast

167
Q

used in starch biosynthesis

A

GLUCOSE-1-PHOSPHATE

168
Q

There is a removal of inorganic phosphate. Product is ___

A

amylopectin

PHA 6117 (8 decks)

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