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Capstone Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychodynamic

A

Development of sense of self, motivation for social/interpersonal relationships. Major theorists: Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney,
Erik Erikson, Anna Freud

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2
Q

Behavioral

A

Classical and operant conditioning, as well as the concept of reinforcement, focus on observable behavior. Major Theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward L. Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner.

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3
Q

Humanistic

A

The ability of the individual to direct and control their own life, free will, and self-actualization. Major Theorists: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Natalie Rogers

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4
Q

Cognitive

A

Perception, memory, intelligence, thought processes, problem-solving, language, learning, and the role of the brain and nervous system. Major Theorists: Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Elizabeth Loftus, Howard Gardner, Fergus I. M. Craik, Raymond Cattell, and Eleanor Rosch

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5
Q

Sociocultural

A

Relationship between social behavior and the contexts of family, social groups, and culture. Major Theorists: Lev Vygotsky, John Darley, Bibb Latané, Albert Bandura, Leon Festinger, Henri Tajfel, Philip Zimbardo, and Stanley Milgram

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6
Q

Biopsychological

A

Influences of genetics, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system on human and animal behavior. Major Theorists: Paul Broca, Charles Darwin, Michael Gazzaniga, Roger Sperry, Carl Wernicke, S. Marc Breedlove, and Lisa Feldman Barrett

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7
Q

Evolutionary

A

The biological bases for universal mental characteristics that are shared by all humans. Major Theorists: David Buss, Richard Dawkins, Leda Cosmides, Robert Trivers, David C. Geary, Todd K. Shackelford, David F. Bjorklund, Anne Campbell, and Susan Oyama

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8
Q

Social Categorization

A

The assignment of a person to a category is based on characteristics the new person has in common with others from past experiences.

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9
Q

Stereotype

A

A set of characteristics believed to be shared by all members of a particular social category.

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10
Q

Implicit Personality Theory

A

Assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related.

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11
Q

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A

Measures the degree of association between concepts.

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12
Q

Schemas

A

Mental patterns represent beliefs about certain types of people. Can become stereotypes and differ across cultures.

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13
Q

Attribution

A

The process of explaining one’s own behavior and the behavior of others.

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14
Q

Attribution Theory

A

Theory of how people make attributions, based on internal and external causes.

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15
Q

Situational Cause

A

External factors like delays, actions of others, or aspects of the situation that cause behavior.

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16
Q

Dispositional Cause

A

Internal factors like personality and character that cause behavior.

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17
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

Tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior.

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18
Q

Actor-Observer Bias

A

Tendency to use situational attributions to explain our behavior and not personal attributions.

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19
Q

Prejudice

A

Negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group.

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20
Q

Discrimination

A

Treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong.

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21
Q

Types of Prejudice

A

Ageism, sexism, racism, prejudice against people who are overweight or underweight, and prejudice against people with different sexual orientations.

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22
Q

In-Groups

A

Social groups with whom a person identifies; “us.”

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23
Q

Out-Groups

A

Social groups with whom a person does not identify; “them.”

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24
Q

Scapegoating

A

Scapegoating

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25
Q

Social Cognitive Theory

A

Use of cognitive processes in understanding the social world.

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26
Q

Realistic Conflict Theory

A

Theory states that prejudice and discrimination increase between groups in conflict over limited resources.

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27
Q

Social Identity Theory

A

Explains the formation of a person’s identity within a particular social group through social categorization, social identity, and social comparison.

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28
Q

Stereotype Vulnerability

A

The effect of people’s awareness of stereotypes associated with their social group on their behavior.

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29
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A

The tendency of one’s expectations to affect one’s behavior in a way that makes the expectation more likely to occur.

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30
Q

Stereotype Threat

A

Anxiety is experienced by members of a stereotyped group in situations where their behavior might confirm a stereotype.

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31
Q

Equal Status Contact

A

Contact between groups where neither has power over the other.

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32
Q

Robber’s Cave Study

A

A classic study on intergroup conflict and cooperation.

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33
Q

“Jigsaw Classroom”

A

Educational technique where each individual is given part of the information needed to solve a problem, forcing cooperation.

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34
Q

Gender Roles

A

Culture’s expectations for male or female behavior in attitudes, actions, and personality traits.

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35
Q

Gender Typing

A

Process of acquiring gender-role characteristics.

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36
Q

Gender Identity

A

Individual’s sense of being masculine or feminine.

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37
Q

Transgender

A

When gender identity does not match external experience or chromosomes.

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38
Q

Gender Dysphoria

A

Distress is experienced when there is a mismatch between gender identity and physical characteristics.

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39
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Gender identity is formed through reinforcement and imitation of gender models, influenced by family, friends, teachers, peers, and media.

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40
Q

Gender Schema Theory

A

The Theory of gender identity acquisition is where a child develops a mental framework for being male or female and organizes behavior around that framework, based on Piaget’s concept of schemas.

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41
Q

Sexism

A

Prejudice against males and/or females leads to unequal treatment.

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42
Q

Benevolent Sexism

A

Acceptance of positive stereotypes of males and females leads to unequal treatment.

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43
Q

Social Psychology

A

is the scientific study of how a person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by, and influence, social groups.

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44
Q

Social Influence

A

The process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

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45
Q

Conformity

A

Changing one’s own behavior to match that of other people.

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46
Q

Normative Social Influence

A

The need to act in ways that we feel will let us be liked and accepted by others.

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47
Q

Informational Social Influence

A

Taking cues for how to behave from others in situations that are unclear or ambiguous.

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48
Q

Social Facilitation

A

The positive influence of others on performance, where the presence of others creates enough arousal to improve performance.

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49
Q

Social Impairment

A

The negative influence of others on performance, where the presence of others in difficult tasks creates too much arousal and impairs performance.

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50
Q

Social Loafing

A

The tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone, is often found in individualistic cultures.

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51
Q

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A

Asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a larger commitment.

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52
Q

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A

Asking for a large commitment and then, after being refused, asking for a smaller commitment.

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53
Q

Lowball Technique

A

Getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment, involving money, time, effort, or another sacrifice.

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54
Q

Obedience

A

Changing one’s behavior at the command of an authority figure.

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55
Q

Milgram’s Shocking Research

A

A study where participants administered what they thought were real shocks to a learner, showing that people consistently follow orders to administer apparently painful shocks, raising ethical questions about obedience to authority.

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56
Q

Attitude

A

A tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a person, object, idea, or situation.

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57
Q

Components of an Attitude

A

Affective (emotional), behavioral, and cognitive components.

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58
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

A sense of discomfort or distress when a person’s behavior does not align with their attitudes is lessened by changing behavior, attitude, or forming a new attitude to justify behavior.

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59
Q

Interpersonal Attraction

A

Liking or desire for a relationship with another person, is influenced by factors such as physical attractiveness, proximity, mere exposure effect, and similarity.

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60
Q

Reciprocity of Liking

A

Tendency for people to like others who like them in return.

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61
Q

Love

A

Strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests.

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62
Q

Sternberg’s Three Components of Love

A

Intimacy, Passion, Commitment; Romantic love consists of intimacy and passion, companionate love consists of intimacy and commitment, and consummate love consists of all three components.

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63
Q

Aggression

A

Behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person.

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64
Q

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

A

Aggression is a reaction to frustration, which can arise from various sources like pain, loud noise, heat, or foul smells.

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65
Q

Prosocial Behavior

A

Socially desirable behavior that benefits others.

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66
Q

Altruism

A
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67
Q

Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ)

A

Brain region is larger in individuals who make altruistic choices.

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68
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. Believed consciousness could be broken down into basic elements like thoughts, experiences, and emotions. Developed objective introspection.

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69
Q

Objective Introspection

A

The process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities.

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70
Q

Edward Titchener

A

Wundt’s student who brought structuralism to America. Structuralism focused on the structure of the mind and believed experiences could be broken down into emotions and sensations.

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71
Q

Structuralism

A

focused on the structure of the mind and believed experiences could be broken down into emotions and sensations.

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72
Q

Margaret Washburn

A

Titchener’s student who became the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Published “The Animal Mind” in 1908.

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73
Q

Functionalism

A

is a theoretical framework in psychology that stresses the adaptive value and purpose of mental processes and behaviors.

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74
Q

Francis Cecil Sumner

A

The first African American man to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.

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75
Q

Inez Beverly Prosser

A

The first African American female to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.

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76
Q

Kenneth and Mamie Clark

A

Researchers who studied the effects of school segregation on African American children.

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77
Q

George (Jorge) Sanchez

A

Studied cultural bias in intelligence tests. (Hispanic/lationo)

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78
Q

Carlos Albizu Miranda

A

One of the first Hispanics to earn a Ph.D. in clinical psychology. (Hispanic/lationo)

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79
Q

Gestalt

A

An organized whole; started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception; Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology.

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80
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

A field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem-solving.

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81
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

A theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud; a modern psychotherapy based on psychoanalysis.

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82
Q

Freud’s Theory

A

Patients suffered from nervous disorders with no apparent physical cause; proposed concept of unconscious mind into which we push—or repress—our threatening urges and desires; believed repressed urges created nervous disorders and stressed the importance of early childhood experiences.

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83
Q

Behaviorism

A

Focuses on observable behavior only, which must be directly seen and measured; proposed by John B. Watson and based on Pavlov’s work, who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned or learned.

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84
Q

Case of “Little Albert”

A

Baby taught to fear a white rat, demonstrating Watson’s belief that phobias were learned.

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85
Q

Mary Cover Jones

A

An early pioneer in behavior therapy.

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86
Q

Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

A

Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. They safeguard the welfare and rights of those they work with and guard against factors that might lead to misuse of their influence. They are aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on their ability to help others.

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87
Q

Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility

A

Psychologists establish relationships of trust, uphold professional standards, clarify their roles, accept responsibility for their behavior, and manage conflicts of interest. They consult, refer, or cooperate with other professionals and institutions as needed.

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88
Q

Principle C: Integrity

A

Psychologists promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness. They do not engage in theft, cheating, fraud, or intentional misrepresentation of fact. They keep promises and avoid unwise commitments. Deception may be justifiable in certain situations but requires serious consideration and responsibility to correct any resulting harm.

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89
Q

Principle D: Justice

A

Psychologists recognize fairness and justice for all persons, ensuring access to and benefit from psychology’s contributions. They take precautions to ensure that biases, boundaries of competence, and limitations of expertise do not lead to unjust practices.

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90
Q

Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity

A

Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and their rights to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. They are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, considering factors like age, gender, race, ethnicity, culture, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status in their work. They strive to eliminate biases and do not participate in activities based on prejudices.

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91
Q

Ethical Treatment of Research Participants

A

Scientists must ensure ethical treatment for research participants.

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92
Q

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

A

Groups of psychologists or other professionals who review proposed research studies and judge them based on safety and consideration for participants.

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93
Q

Common Ethical Guidelines

A
  • Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science.
  • Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.
  • Deception must be justified.
  • Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.
  • Participants must be protected from risks or explicitly told of risks.
  • Investigators must debrief participants.
  • Data must remain confidential.
  • If a study results in undesirable consequences, the researcher is responsible for detecting and removing/correcting them.
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94
Q

Chromosomes in Humans

A

Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell of the body, arranged in 23 pairs.

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95
Q

Origin of Chromosomes

A

23 chromosomes come from the female egg, and 23 chromosomes come from the male sperm.

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96
Q

Autosomes

A

Of the 23 pairs, 22 pairs determine human characteristics and are called autosomes.

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97
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

The two chromosomes that make up the 23rd pair are referred to as sex chromosomes. XX chromosomes determine a female, while XY chromosomes determine a male.

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98
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

Birth to 2 years old. Children explore the world using senses and movement. They develop object permanence and understand that mental images represent objects, people, and events. (Piaget’s Theory First stage)

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99
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

2-7 years old. Children can mentally represent objects and events with words or pictures and engage in pretend play. They can’t conserve, logically reason, or consider multiple characteristics of an object simultaneously. Egocentrism, centration, conservation and irreversibility. (Piaget’s Theory 2nd Stage)

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100
Q

Concrete Operations Stage

A

7-12 years old. Children can conserve, reverse their thinking, classify objects based on multiple characteristics, think logically, understand analogies, but only about concrete events.Concrete concepts: the kind of concepts understood by children of this age; are about objects, written rules, and real things. Limitations include abstract thought:Abstract concepts: those that do not have some physical, concrete, touchable reality. (Piaget’s Theory 3rd stage.)

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101
Q

Formal Operations Stage

A

12 years old to adulthood. People can use abstract reasoning about hypothetical events, think about logical possibilities, use abstract analogies, and systematically examine and test hypotheses. Not everyone reaches this stage. (Piaget’s Theory final stage)

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102
Q

Sociocultural Theory

A

Emphasizes the role of others and the importance of social and cultural interaction in cognitive development. Developed by Vygotsky.

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103
Q

Scaffolding

A

Process in which a more skilled learner provides assistance to a less skilled learner, gradually reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.

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104
Q

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

A

Vygotsky’s concept referring to the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can achieve with the help of a teacher or more skilled peer.

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105
Q

Secure Attachment Style

A

Avoidant Attachment Style

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106
Q

Avoidant Attachment Style

A

Insecurely attached; unengaged with mother; explores without touching base.

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107
Q

Ambivalent Attachment Style

A

Insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.

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108
Q

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment Style

A
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109
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage 1: Infant (Birth to 1 year)

A

Developmental Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust. Infants learn trust based on how their needs are met.Successful Dealing with Crisis: If needs are met, they develop trust in people.Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: If needs are not met, they develop mistrust and do not expect their needs to be met in the future.

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110
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage 2: Toddler (1 to 3 years)

A

Developmental Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Toddlers learn they can control their actions. Successful Dealing with Crisis: They develop independence.Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: Blocked attempts at independence lead to self-doubt and shame.

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111
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage 3: Preschool Age (3 to 5 years)

A

Developmental Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt. Preschoolers learn to take responsibility and develop self-control.Successful Dealing with Crisis: They feel capable and develop initiative. Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: They feel irresponsible, anxious, and develop guilt.

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112
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage 4: Elementary School Age (5 to 12 years)

A

Developmental Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority. Children learn new skills and compare themselves to others.Successful Dealing with Crisis: Feeling competent leads to a sense of industry and improved self-esteem.Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: Feeling inferior when comparing oneself to others.

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113
Q

Adolescence

A

Period from about age 13 to early 20s; not just chronological age but how a person manages life issues.

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114
Q

Puberty

A

Physical changes in the body as sexual development peaks.

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115
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality: Preconventional

A

Morality based on consequences; rewarded actions are right, punished actions are wrong.

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116
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality: Conventional

A

Morality based on society’s rules; actions are right if they conform, wrong if they don’t.

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117
Q

Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality: Postconventional

A

Morality based on personal judgment, even if it disagrees with society’s rules.

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118
Q

Adulthood

A

Begins in early 20s and ends with old age and death; divided into young, middle, and late adulthood.

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119
Q

Emerging Adulthood

A

Period from late adolescence through 20s; characterized by lack of independence, mainly found in developed countries.

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120
Q

Cellular Clock Theory

A

Cells can only reproduce a certain number of times to repair damage.

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121
Q

Telomeres

A

Structures on ends of chromosomes that shorten each time a cell reproduces.

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122
Q

Wear-and-Tear Theory

A

Repeated use and abuse of body’s tissues cause inability to repair all damage.

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123
Q

Free Radical Theory

A

Oxygen molecules with unstable electron damage cell structures.

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124
Q

Activity Theory

A

Older people are happier if they remain active, such as through volunteering or hobbies.

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125
Q

Kübler-Ross’ Five Stages of Reaction to Death

A

Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.

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126
Q

Neuron

A

Basic nervous system cell; receives and sends messages.

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127
Q

Dendrites

A

are Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.

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128
Q

Soma

A

Cell body of the neuron maintains cell life.

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129
Q

Axon

A

is a Long, tube-like structure that carries neural messages to other cells.

130
Q

Axon Terminals

A

Rounded areas at the end of the axon branches; responsible for communicating with other nerve cells.

131
Q

Glial Cells

A

Support neurons, deliver nutrients, and produce myelin.

132
Q

Myelin

A

is a Fatty substance that coats axons to insulate and speed up neural impulses.

133
Q

Synapse

A

Space between axon terminal of one cell and dendrites/surface of next cell.

134
Q

Synaptic Vesicles

A

Sac-like structures inside axon terminal containing chemicals.

135
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Chemical in synaptic vesicles that affects the next cell.

136
Q

Receptor Sites

A

Proteins on dendrites/surface of cells shaped to fit neurotransmitters.

137
Q

Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

Involved in arousal, attention, memory, muscle contractions.

138
Q

Neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine (NE)

A

Involved in arousal and mood.

139
Q

Neurotransmitters: Dopamine (DA)

A

Involved in control of movement and pleasure sensations.

140
Q

Neurotransmitters: Serotonin (5-HT)

A

Involved in sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite.

141
Q

Neurotransmitters: GABA

A

Inhibitory; involved in sleep and movement inhibition.

142
Q

Neurotransmitters: Glutamate

A

Excitatory; involved in learning, memory, nervous system development.

143
Q

Neurotransmitters: Endorphins

A

Inhibitory; involved in pain relief.

144
Q

Reuptake

A

Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into synaptic vesicles.

145
Q

Enzyme

A

Complex protein that alters neurotransmitter structure.

146
Q

Enzymatic Degradation

A

Process by which neurotransmitter structure is altered, preventing receptor action.

147
Q

Hindbrain

A

The lower part of the brain is responsible for life-sustaining functions and coordination.

148
Q

Medulla

A

First, there is a large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, which is responsible for vital functions like breathing and heart rate.

149
Q

Pons

A

Larger swelling above the medulla, involved in sleep, dreaming, and body coordination.

150
Q

Reticular Formation (RF):

A

Area of neurons running through the medulla and pons, responsible for selective attention.

151
Q

Cerebellum,

A

Located behind the pons, controls fine motor movements and coordination.

152
Q

Forebrain

A

The upper part of the brain involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

153
Q

Limbic System

A

Group of brain structures under the cortex, involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

154
Q

Thalamus

A

Part of the limbic system in the center of the brain, relays sensory information to the cortex.

155
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Small structure below the thalamus, regulates behaviors like sleep, hunger, and thirst.

156
Q

Hippocampus

A

Curved structure in each temporal lobe, involved in forming long-term memories.

157
Q

Amygdala

A

Brain structure near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory.

158
Q

Cingulate Cortex

A

Limbic structure in the cortex, important for cognitive and emotional processing.

159
Q

Cortex

A

Outermost covering of the brain responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

160
Q

Corticalization

A

Wrinkling of the cortex, allowing for a larger area of cortical cells in a small space.

161
Q

Cerebral Hemispheres

A

Two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.

162
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Thick band of neurons connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

163
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Located at the rear and bottom of each hemisphere, responsible for visual processing.

164
Q

Primary Visual Cortex

A

Processes visual information from the eyes.

165
Q

Visual Association Cortex

A

Identifies and makes sense of visual information.

166
Q

Parietal Lobes

A

Located at the top and back of each hemisphere, containing touch, taste, and temperature centers.

167
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A

Processes information from skin and body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.

168
Q

Temporal Lobes

A

Along the sides of the brain, responsible for hearing and speech.

169
Q

Primary Auditory Cortex

A

Processes auditory information from the ears.

170
Q

Auditory Association Cortex

A

Identifies and makes sense of auditory information.

171
Q

Frontal Lobes

A

Located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making.

172
Q

Motor Cortex

A

Rear section of the frontal lobe, sends motor commands to muscles.

173
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

174
Q

Spinal Cord

A

Long bundle of neurons carrying messages to and from the body to the brain, responsible for reflexes.

175
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

Nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord.

176
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Part of the PNS controlling voluntary muscles and movement.

177
Q

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A

Controls involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.

178
Q

Sympathetic Division

A

Part of the ANS responsible for reacting to stress and bodily arousal.

179
Q

Parasympathetic Division

A

Part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal.

180
Q

Scientific approach

A

A system of gathering data to reduce bias and error in measurement.

181
Q

Psychology’s goals

A

Description (what is happening), Explanation (why is it happening), Prediction (when will it happen again), Control (how can it be changed).

182
Q

Steps in Scientific Approach

A

Perceive the question, Form a hypothesis (Tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations), Test the hypothesis, Draw conclusions, Report your results (Others may replicate study or experiment to see whether the same results will be obtained to demonstrate the reliability of results).

183
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.

184
Q

Advantage of Naturalistic Observation

A

Provides a realistic picture of behavior.

185
Q

Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation

A

Observer effect, Observer bias, Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold.

186
Q

Laboratory Observation

A

Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.

187
Q

Advantages of Laboratory Observation

A

Control over the environment, Allows the use of specialized equipment.

188
Q

Disadvantages of Laboratory Observation

A

Artificial situation may result in artificial behavior, Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses.

189
Q

Case Study

A

Study of one individual in great detail.

190
Q

Case studies Advantages

A

Provides a tremendous amount of detail.

191
Q

Case studies Disadvantages

A

Findings cannot be easily applied to others.

192
Q

Famous Case Study

A

Phineas Gage, known for his survival of an accident that resulted in major personality changes due to a brain injury.

193
Q

Surveys

A

Researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under study.

194
Q

Population

A

The entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested.

195
Q

Advantages for surveys

A

Data can be collected from large numbers of people, and it is possible to study covert behaviors.

196
Q

Disadvantages for surveys

A

Results may not be meaningful if the sample is not representative; there may be a courtesy bias.

197
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the relationship between two variables.

198
Q

Variable

A

Anything that can change or vary.

199
Q

Prediction

A

Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable.

200
Q

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A

A value that represents the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

201
Q

Experiment

A

A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.

202
Q

Operationalization

A

A specific definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.

203
Q

Independent Variable

A

The variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.

204
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of subjects.

205
Q

Experimental Group

A

Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.

206
Q

Control Group

A

Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and may receive a placebo treatment.

207
Q

Random Assignment

A

The process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups randomly, to control for confounding variables.

208
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

A research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time.

209
Q

Cross-Sectional Design

A

A research design in which several different participant age-groups are studied at one particular point in time.

210
Q

Cross-Sequential Design

A

A research design that combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

211
Q

Cohort Effect

A

The impact on development when a group of people share a common time period or life experience.

212
Q

Interval Data

A

Data where the numbers show order, direction, and a consistent difference in values, but there is no “true zero.”

213
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

214
Q

Positive Correlation

A

A type of correlation where variables are related in the same direction.

215
Q

Negative Correlation

A

A type of correlation where variables are related in opposite directions.

216
Q

T-Tests

A

A statistical test that explores the difference between the means of two groups.

217
Q

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

A

A statistical test that compares mean values across three or more groups.

218
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A

A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and unlearned response. Elements of classical conditioning

219
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

An involuntary and unlearned response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning

220
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

A stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning

221
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A

A stimulus that can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning

222
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

A learned, reflex-like response to a conditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning

223
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.

224
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.

225
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

A behaviorist who studied observable, measurable behavior and gave “operant conditioning” its name.

226
Q

Operant

A

Any behavior that is voluntary.

227
Q

Reinforcement

A

Any event or stimulus that, when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.

228
Q

Primary Reinforcer

A

Any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch.

229
Q

Secondary Reinforcer

A

Any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.

230
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

The reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus.

231
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

The reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.

232
Q

Partial Reinforcement Effect

A

A response that is reinforced after some—but not all—correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction.

233
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement of each and every correct response.

234
Q

Fixed Interval Schedule

A

An interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.

235
Q

Variable Interval Schedule

A

The interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event.

236
Q

Observational Learning

A

Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.

237
Q

Attention

A

The learner must first pay attention to the model to learn anything through observation.

238
Q

Memory

A

The learner must be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in a process.

239
Q

Imitation

A

The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model.

240
Q

Desire

A

The learner must have the motivation to perform the action.

241
Q

Concepts

A

Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.

242
Q

Formal Concepts

A

Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features.

243
Q

Natural Concepts

A

Concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world.

244
Q

Prototype

A

A concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept. Prototypes develop according to exposure a person has to objects in that category.

245
Q

Schemas

A

Mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people.

246
Q

Scripts

A

A kind of schema that involves a familiar sequence of activities.

247
Q

Problem Solving

A

Occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.

248
Q

Decision Making

A

The process of identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives.

249
Q

Trial and Error

A

Problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.

250
Q

Algorithms

A

Very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Will always result in a correct solution if one exists to be found.

251
Q

Heuristic

A

An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb” or mental shortcut.

252
Q

Representative Heuristic

A

A heuristic where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype.

253
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

A heuristic where people base their judgments on the availability of information in their memories.

254
Q

Working Backward

A

A problem-solving strategy where one starts at the end goal and works backward to determine the steps needed to reach that goal.

255
Q

Subgoals

A

Breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable parts to solve it more easily.

256
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

A block to problem-solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions, limiting one’s ability to see other potential uses.

257
Q

Mental Set

A

The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.

258
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.

259
Q

Creativity

A

The process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in new ways to generate novel and useful solutions.

260
Q

Convergent Thinking

A

A problem-solving approach where a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer.

261
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

A problem-solving approach where a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.

262
Q

Short-term Memory (STM; Working Memory)

A

The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.

263
Q

Selective Attention

A

The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.

264
Q

Working Memory

A

An active system that processes the information in short-term memory.

265
Q

Central Executive

A

Part of working memory responsible for directing attention and processing information.

266
Q

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A

Part of working memory responsible for processing visual and spatial information.

267
Q

Phonological Loop

A

Part of working memory responsible for processing verbal information.

268
Q

Long-term Memory (LTM)

A

The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.

269
Q

Duration

A

The length of time a memory is stored.

270
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

A method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way.

271
Q

Carol Dweck’s Self-theory of Motivation

A

A theory that suggests an individual’s view of themselves can influence their need for achievement.

272
Q

Need for Achievement

A

A psychological driver that compels individuals to excel and succeed.

273
Q

Locus of Control

A

The extent to which individuals believe they can control events that affect them.

274
Q

Internal Locus of Control

A

The belief that one can control their own life and outcomes.

275
Q

External Locus of Control

A

The belief that outside forces such as luck or fate control one’s life.

276
Q

Stimulus motive

A

A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

277
Q

Arousal theory

A

A theory of motivation suggesting that individuals seek to maintain an optimal level of tension by increasing or decreasing stimulation.

278
Q

Sensation seeker

A

Individuals who need more arousal to reach their optimal level of tension.

279
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A

A theory proposing several levels of needs that individuals must strive for before reaching self-actualization.

280
Q

Self-actualization

A

According to Maslow, the point at which individuals have satisfied lower needs and achieved their full human potential.

281
Q

Peak experiences

A

Times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved, as suggested by Maslow.

282
Q

Self-determination theory

A

A theory suggesting that the social context of an action affects the type of motivation for the action.

283
Q

Autonomy

A

The need to be in control of one’s own behavior and goals.

284
Q

Competence

A

The need to be able to master the challenging tasks of one’s life.

285
Q

Relatedness

A

The need to feel a sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others.

286
Q

Stress

A

Physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events perceived as threatening or challenging.

287
Q

Stressors

A

Events that cause a stress reaction.

288
Q

Distress

A

The effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors.

289
Q

Eustress

A

The effect of positive events or the optimal amount of stress needed to promote health and well-being.

290
Q

Pressure

A

The psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior from an outside source.

291
Q

Uncontrollability

A

The degree of control a person has over a particular event or situation; less control leads to greater stress.

292
Q

Frustration

A

The psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need.

293
Q

External frustrations

A

Conditions such as losses, rejections, failures, and delays that lead to frustration.

294
Q

Internal frustrations

A

Frustration that occurs when the goal or need cannot be attained due to internal or personal characteristics.

295
Q

Possible reactions to frustration

A

Persistence (continuing efforts), aggression (harming or destroying), escape or withdrawal (leaving the stressor), displaced aggression (taking out frustrations on a different target).

296
Q

Persistence

A

Continuation of efforts to overcome or get around whatever is causing frustration.

297
Q

Aggression

A

Actions intended to harm or destroy.

298
Q

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

A theory proposing that frustration often leads to aggression.

299
Q

Displaced aggression

A

Redirecting one’s frustrations or aggressive impulses toward a target that is more available or less threatening than the original source of frustration.

300
Q

Escape or withdrawal

A

Removing oneself from the presence of a stressor or frustrating situation.

301
Q

Abnormality

A

Deviation from what is considered typical or usual behavior, thought patterns, or emotions; can be defined in various ways, including statistical rarity, deviation from social norms, subjective discomfort, and inability to function normally.

302
Q

Statistical rarity

A

Defining abnormality based on how infrequently a behavior, thought, or emotion occurs within a population.

303
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

Defining abnormality based on behavior, thoughts, or emotions that violate or differ significantly from societal expectations or standards.

304
Q

Situational context

A

Recognizing that what is considered abnormal behavior may depend on the specific context or environment in which it occurs.

305
Q

Subjective discomfort

A

Defining abnormality based on an individual’s experience of emotional distress or pain related to a behavior or thought process.

306
Q

Inability to function normally

A

Defining abnormality based on an individual’s difficulty adapting to the demands of daily living, which may impair their ability to work, maintain relationships, or care for themselves.

307
Q

Maladaptive

A

Describing behavior that is counterproductive or harmful to an individual’s well-being or success in daily life.

308
Q

International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

A

An international standard diagnostic tool for epidemiology, health management, and clinical purposes. Published by the World Health Organization (WHO).

309
Q

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

A

A classification system of mental disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for healthcare professionals to diagnose and classify mental disorders.

310
Q

Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR)

A

The latest edition of the DSM, providing criteria for diagnosing mental disorders, including descriptions, symptoms, and other criteria.

311
Q

Pros of Diagnostic Labels

A

Provide a common language for professionals, Establish distinct categories for treatment and understanding, Can be time-saving and life-saving tools

312
Q

Cons of Diagnostic Labels

A

May lead to prejudice or stigmatization, Can introduce bias, Psychology student’s syndrome where individuals may mistakenly believe they have disorders they are studying.

313
Q

Affect

A

In psychology, a term indicating “emotion” or “mood.”

314
Q

Mood disorders

A

Disorders in which mood is severely disturbed.

315
Q

Anxiety disorders

A

Class of disorders in which the primary symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety.

316
Q

Phobia

A

An irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity.

317
Q

Social anxiety disorder

A

Fear of interacting with others or being in social situations that might lead to a negative evaluation.

318
Q

Specific phobia

A

Fear of objects or specific situations or events.

319
Q

Claustrophobia

A

Fear of being in a small, enclosed space.

320
Q

Acrophobia

A

Fear of heights.

321
Q

Agoraphobia

A

Fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible.

Capstone Comprehensive Psych Test (1 decks)

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