Capstone Flashcards
1
Q
Psychodynamic
A
Development of sense of self, motivation for social/interpersonal relationships. Major theorists: Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney,
Erik Erikson, Anna Freud
2
Q
Behavioral
A
Classical and operant conditioning, as well as the concept of reinforcement, focus on observable behavior. Major Theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward L. Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner.
3
Q
Humanistic
A
The ability of the individual to direct and control their own life, free will, and self-actualization. Major Theorists: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Natalie Rogers
4
Q
Cognitive
A
Perception, memory, intelligence, thought processes, problem-solving, language, learning, and the role of the brain and nervous system. Major Theorists: Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Elizabeth Loftus, Howard Gardner, Fergus I. M. Craik, Raymond Cattell, and Eleanor Rosch
5
Q
Sociocultural
A
Relationship between social behavior and the contexts of family, social groups, and culture. Major Theorists: Lev Vygotsky, John Darley, Bibb Latané, Albert Bandura, Leon Festinger, Henri Tajfel, Philip Zimbardo, and Stanley Milgram
6
Q
Biopsychological
A
Influences of genetics, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system on human and animal behavior. Major Theorists: Paul Broca, Charles Darwin, Michael Gazzaniga, Roger Sperry, Carl Wernicke, S. Marc Breedlove, and Lisa Feldman Barrett
7
Q
Evolutionary
A
The biological bases for universal mental characteristics that are shared by all humans. Major Theorists: David Buss, Richard Dawkins, Leda Cosmides, Robert Trivers, David C. Geary, Todd K. Shackelford, David F. Bjorklund, Anne Campbell, and Susan Oyama
8
Q
Social Categorization
A
The assignment of a person to a category is based on characteristics the new person has in common with others from past experiences.
9
Q
Stereotype
A
A set of characteristics believed to be shared by all members of a particular social category.
10
Q
Implicit Personality Theory
A
Assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related.
11
Q
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
A
Measures the degree of association between concepts.
12
Q
Schemas
A
Mental patterns represent beliefs about certain types of people. Can become stereotypes and differ across cultures.
13
Q
Attribution
A
The process of explaining one’s own behavior and the behavior of others.
14
Q
Attribution Theory
A
Theory of how people make attributions, based on internal and external causes.
15
Q
Situational Cause
A
External factors like delays, actions of others, or aspects of the situation that cause behavior.
16
Q
Dispositional Cause
A
Internal factors like personality and character that cause behavior.
17
Q
Fundamental Attribution Error
A
Tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior.
18
Q
Actor-Observer Bias
A
Tendency to use situational attributions to explain our behavior and not personal attributions.
19
Q
Prejudice
A
Negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group.
20
Q
Discrimination
A
Treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong.
21
Q
Types of Prejudice
A
Ageism, sexism, racism, prejudice against people who are overweight or underweight, and prejudice against people with different sexual orientations.
22
Q
In-Groups
A
Social groups with whom a person identifies; “us.”
23
Q
Out-Groups
A
Social groups with whom a person does not identify; “them.”
24
Q
Scapegoating
A
Scapegoating
25
Social Cognitive Theory
Use of cognitive processes in understanding the social world.
26
Realistic Conflict Theory
Theory states that prejudice and discrimination increase between groups in conflict over limited resources.
27
Social Identity Theory
Explains the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group through social categorization, social identity, and social comparison.
28
Stereotype Vulnerability
The effect of people's awareness of stereotypes associated with their social group on their behavior.
29
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The tendency of one's expectations to affect one's behavior in a way that makes the expectation more likely to occur.
30
Stereotype Threat
Anxiety is experienced by members of a stereotyped group in situations where their behavior might confirm a stereotype.
31
Equal Status Contact
Contact between groups where neither has power over the other.
32
Robber's Cave Study
A classic study on intergroup conflict and cooperation.
33
"Jigsaw Classroom"
Educational technique where each individual is given part of the information needed to solve a problem, forcing cooperation.
34
Gender Roles
Culture's expectations for male or female behavior in attitudes, actions, and personality traits.
35
Gender Typing
Process of acquiring gender-role characteristics.
36
Gender Identity
Individual's sense of being masculine or feminine.
37
Transgender
When gender identity does not match external experience or chromosomes.
38
Gender Dysphoria
Distress is experienced when there is a mismatch between gender identity and physical characteristics.
39
Social Learning Theory
Gender identity is formed through reinforcement and imitation of gender models, influenced by family, friends, teachers, peers, and media.
40
Gender Schema Theory
The Theory of gender identity acquisition is where a child develops a mental framework for being male or female and organizes behavior around that framework, based on Piaget's concept of schemas.
41
Sexism
Prejudice against males and/or females leads to unequal treatment.
42
Benevolent Sexism
Acceptance of positive stereotypes of males and females leads to unequal treatment.
43
Social Psychology
is the scientific study of how a person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by, and influence, social groups.
44
Social Influence
The process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
45
Conformity
Changing one's own behavior to match that of other people.
46
Normative Social Influence
The need to act in ways that we feel will let us be liked and accepted by others.
47
Informational Social Influence
Taking cues for how to behave from others in situations that are unclear or ambiguous.
48
Social Facilitation
The positive influence of others on performance, where the presence of others creates enough arousal to improve performance.
49
Social Impairment
The negative influence of others on performance, where the presence of others in difficult tasks creates too much arousal and impairs performance.
50
Social Loafing
The tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone, is often found in individualistic cultures.
51
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a larger commitment.
52
Door-in-the-Face Technique
Asking for a large commitment and then, after being refused, asking for a smaller commitment.
53
Lowball Technique
Getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment, involving money, time, effort, or another sacrifice.
54
Obedience
Changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure.
55
Milgram's Shocking Research
A study where participants administered what they thought were real shocks to a learner, showing that people consistently follow orders to administer apparently painful shocks, raising ethical questions about obedience to authority.
56
Attitude
A tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a person, object, idea, or situation.
57
Components of an Attitude
Affective (emotional), behavioral, and cognitive components.
58
Cognitive Dissonance
A sense of discomfort or distress when a person's behavior does not align with their attitudes is lessened by changing behavior, attitude, or forming a new attitude to justify behavior.
59
Interpersonal Attraction
Liking or desire for a relationship with another person, is influenced by factors such as physical attractiveness, proximity, mere exposure effect, and similarity.
60
Reciprocity of Liking
Tendency for people to like others who like them in return.
61
Love
Strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests.
62
Sternberg's Three Components of Love
Intimacy, Passion, Commitment; Romantic love consists of intimacy and passion, companionate love consists of intimacy and commitment, and consummate love consists of all three components.
63
Aggression
Behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person.
64
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
Aggression is a reaction to frustration, which can arise from various sources like pain, loud noise, heat, or foul smells.
65
Prosocial Behavior
Socially desirable behavior that benefits others.
66
Altruism
67
Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ)
Brain region is larger in individuals who make altruistic choices.
68
Wilhelm Wundt
Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. Believed consciousness could be broken down into basic elements like thoughts, experiences, and emotions. Developed objective introspection.
69
Objective Introspection
The process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities.
70
Edward Titchener
Wundt's student who brought structuralism to America. Structuralism focused on the structure of the mind and believed experiences could be broken down into emotions and sensations.
71
Structuralism
focused on the structure of the mind and believed experiences could be broken down into emotions and sensations.
72
Margaret Washburn
Titchener's student who became the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Published "The Animal Mind" in 1908.
73
Functionalism
is a theoretical framework in psychology that stresses the adaptive value and purpose of mental processes and behaviors.
74
Francis Cecil Sumner
The first African American man to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.
75
Inez Beverly Prosser
The first African American female to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.
76
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
Researchers who studied the effects of school segregation on African American children.
77
George (Jorge) Sanchez
Studied cultural bias in intelligence tests. (Hispanic/lationo)
78
Carlos Albizu Miranda
One of the first Hispanics to earn a Ph.D. in clinical psychology. (Hispanic/lationo)
79
Gestalt
An organized whole; started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception; Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology.
80
Cognitive Psychology
A field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem-solving.
81
Psychoanalysis
A theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud; a modern psychotherapy based on psychoanalysis.
82
Freud's Theory
Patients suffered from nervous disorders with no apparent physical cause; proposed concept of unconscious mind into which we push—or repress—our threatening urges and desires; believed repressed urges created nervous disorders and stressed the importance of early childhood experiences.
83
Behaviorism
Focuses on observable behavior only, which must be directly seen and measured; proposed by John B. Watson and based on Pavlov's work, who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned or learned.
84
Case of "Little Albert"
Baby taught to fear a white rat, demonstrating Watson's belief that phobias were learned.
85
Mary Cover Jones
An early pioneer in behavior therapy.
86
Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. They safeguard the welfare and rights of those they work with and guard against factors that might lead to misuse of their influence. They are aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on their ability to help others.
87
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
Psychologists establish relationships of trust, uphold professional standards, clarify their roles, accept responsibility for their behavior, and manage conflicts of interest. They consult, refer, or cooperate with other professionals and institutions as needed.
88
Principle C: Integrity
Psychologists promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness. They do not engage in theft, cheating, fraud, or intentional misrepresentation of fact. They keep promises and avoid unwise commitments. Deception may be justifiable in certain situations but requires serious consideration and responsibility to correct any resulting harm.
89
Principle D: Justice
Psychologists recognize fairness and justice for all persons, ensuring access to and benefit from psychology's contributions. They take precautions to ensure that biases, boundaries of competence, and limitations of expertise do not lead to unjust practices.
90
Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and their rights to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. They are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, considering factors like age, gender, race, ethnicity, culture, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status in their work. They strive to eliminate biases and do not participate in activities based on prejudices.
91
Ethical Treatment of Research Participants
Scientists must ensure ethical treatment for research participants.
92
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
Groups of psychologists or other professionals who review proposed research studies and judge them based on safety and consideration for participants.
93
Common Ethical Guidelines
- Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study's value to science.
- Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.
- Deception must be justified.
- Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.
- Participants must be protected from risks or explicitly told of risks.
- Investigators must debrief participants.
- Data must remain confidential.
- If a study results in undesirable consequences, the researcher is responsible for detecting and removing/correcting them.
94
Chromosomes in Humans
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell of the body, arranged in 23 pairs.
95
Origin of Chromosomes
23 chromosomes come from the female egg, and 23 chromosomes come from the male sperm.
96
Autosomes
Of the 23 pairs, 22 pairs determine human characteristics and are called autosomes.
97
Sex Chromosomes
The two chromosomes that make up the 23rd pair are referred to as sex chromosomes. XX chromosomes determine a female, while XY chromosomes determine a male.
98
Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to 2 years old. Children explore the world using senses and movement. They develop object permanence and understand that mental images represent objects, people, and events. (Piaget’s Theory First stage)
99
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years old. Children can mentally represent objects and events with words or pictures and engage in pretend play. They can't conserve, logically reason, or consider multiple characteristics of an object simultaneously. Egocentrism, centration, conservation and irreversibility. (Piaget’s Theory 2nd Stage)
100
Concrete Operations Stage
7-12 years old. Children can conserve, reverse their thinking, classify objects based on multiple characteristics, think logically, understand analogies, but only about concrete events.Concrete concepts: the kind of concepts understood by children of this age; are about objects, written rules, and real things. Limitations include abstract thought:Abstract concepts: those that do not have some physical, concrete, touchable reality. (Piaget’s Theory 3rd stage.)
101
Formal Operations Stage
12 years old to adulthood. People can use abstract reasoning about hypothetical events, think about logical possibilities, use abstract analogies, and systematically examine and test hypotheses. Not everyone reaches this stage. (Piaget’s Theory final stage)
102
Sociocultural Theory
Emphasizes the role of others and the importance of social and cultural interaction in cognitive development. Developed by Vygotsky.
103
Scaffolding
Process in which a more skilled learner provides assistance to a less skilled learner, gradually reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
104
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's concept referring to the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can achieve with the help of a teacher or more skilled peer.
105
Secure Attachment Style
Avoidant Attachment Style
106
Avoidant Attachment Style
Insecurely attached; unengaged with mother; explores without touching base.
107
Ambivalent Attachment Style
Insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.
108
Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment Style
109
Erikson's Psychosocial Stage 1: Infant (Birth to 1 year)
Developmental Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust. Infants learn trust based on how their needs are met. Successful Dealing with Crisis: If needs are met, they develop trust in people. Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: If needs are not met, they develop mistrust and do not expect their needs to be met in the future.
110
Erikson's Psychosocial Stage 2: Toddler (1 to 3 years)
Developmental Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Toddlers learn they can control their actions. Successful Dealing with Crisis: They develop independence. Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: Blocked attempts at independence lead to self-doubt and shame.
111
Erikson's Psychosocial Stage 3: Preschool Age (3 to 5 years)
Developmental Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt. Preschoolers learn to take responsibility and develop self-control. Successful Dealing with Crisis: They feel capable and develop initiative. Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: They feel irresponsible, anxious, and develop guilt.
112
Erikson's Psychosocial Stage 4: Elementary School Age (5 to 12 years)
Developmental Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority. Children learn new skills and compare themselves to others. Successful Dealing with Crisis: Feeling competent leads to a sense of industry and improved self-esteem. Unsuccessful Dealing with Crisis: Feeling inferior when comparing oneself to others.
113
Adolescence
Period from about age 13 to early 20s; not just chronological age but how a person manages life issues.
114
Puberty
Physical changes in the body as sexual development peaks.
115
Kohlberg's Levels of Morality: Preconventional
Morality based on consequences; rewarded actions are right, punished actions are wrong.
116
Kohlberg's Levels of Morality: Conventional
Morality based on society's rules; actions are right if they conform, wrong if they don't.
117
Kohlberg's Levels of Morality: Postconventional
Morality based on personal judgment, even if it disagrees with society's rules.
118
Adulthood
Begins in early 20s and ends with old age and death; divided into young, middle, and late adulthood.
119
Emerging Adulthood
Period from late adolescence through 20s; characterized by lack of independence, mainly found in developed countries.
120
Cellular Clock Theory
Cells can only reproduce a certain number of times to repair damage.
121
Telomeres
Structures on ends of chromosomes that shorten each time a cell reproduces.
122
Wear-and-Tear Theory
Repeated use and abuse of body's tissues cause inability to repair all damage.
123
Free Radical Theory
Oxygen molecules with unstable electron damage cell structures.
124
Activity Theory
Older people are happier if they remain active, such as through volunteering or hobbies.
125
Kübler-Ross' Five Stages of Reaction to Death
Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.
126
Neuron
Basic nervous system cell; receives and sends messages.
127
Dendrites
are Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.
128
Soma
Cell body of the neuron maintains cell life.
129
Axon
is a Long, tube-like structure that carries neural messages to other cells.
130
Axon Terminals
Rounded areas at the end of the axon branches; responsible for communicating with other nerve cells.
131
Glial Cells
Support neurons, deliver nutrients, and produce myelin.
132
Myelin
is a Fatty substance that coats axons to insulate and speed up neural impulses.
133
Synapse
Space between axon terminal of one cell and dendrites/surface of next cell.
134
Synaptic Vesicles
Sac-like structures inside axon terminal containing chemicals.
135
Neurotransmitter
Chemical in synaptic vesicles that affects the next cell.
136
Receptor Sites
Proteins on dendrites/surface of cells shaped to fit neurotransmitters.
137
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (ACh)
Involved in arousal, attention, memory, muscle contractions.
138
Neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine (NE)
Involved in arousal and mood.
139
Neurotransmitters: Dopamine (DA)
Involved in control of movement and pleasure sensations.
140
Neurotransmitters: Serotonin (5-HT)
Involved in sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite.
141
Neurotransmitters: GABA
Inhibitory; involved in sleep and movement inhibition.
142
Neurotransmitters: Glutamate
Excitatory; involved in learning, memory, nervous system development.
143
Neurotransmitters: Endorphins
Inhibitory; involved in pain relief.
144
Reuptake
Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into synaptic vesicles.
145
Enzyme
Complex protein that alters neurotransmitter structure.
146
Enzymatic Degradation
Process by which neurotransmitter structure is altered, preventing receptor action.
147
Hindbrain
The lower part of the brain is responsible for life-sustaining functions and coordination.
148
Medulla
First, there is a large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, which is responsible for vital functions like breathing and heart rate.
149
Pons
Larger swelling above the medulla, involved in sleep, dreaming, and body coordination.
150
Reticular Formation (RF):
Area of neurons running through the medulla and pons, responsible for selective attention.
151
Cerebellum,
Located behind the pons, controls fine motor movements and coordination.
152
Forebrain
The upper part of the brain involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.
153
Limbic System
Group of brain structures under the cortex, involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.
154
Thalamus
Part of the limbic system in the center of the brain, relays sensory information to the cortex.
155
Hypothalamus
Small structure below the thalamus, regulates behaviors like sleep, hunger, and thirst.
156
Hippocampus
Curved structure in each temporal lobe, involved in forming long-term memories.
157
Amygdala
Brain structure near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory.
158
Cingulate Cortex
Limbic structure in the cortex, important for cognitive and emotional processing.
159
Cortex
Outermost covering of the brain responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.
160
Corticalization
Wrinkling of the cortex, allowing for a larger area of cortical cells in a small space.
161
Cerebral Hemispheres
Two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.
162
Corpus Callosum
Thick band of neurons connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
163
Occipital Lobe
Located at the rear and bottom of each hemisphere, responsible for visual processing.
164
Primary Visual Cortex
Processes visual information from the eyes.
165
Visual Association Cortex
Identifies and makes sense of visual information.
166
Parietal Lobes
Located at the top and back of each hemisphere, containing touch, taste, and temperature centers.
167
Somatosensory Cortex
Processes information from skin and body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.
168
Temporal Lobes
Along the sides of the brain, responsible for hearing and speech.
169
Primary Auditory Cortex
Processes auditory information from the ears.
170
Auditory Association Cortex
Identifies and makes sense of auditory information.
171
Frontal Lobes
Located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making.
172
Motor Cortex
Rear section of the frontal lobe, sends motor commands to muscles.
173
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Consists of the brain and spinal cord.
174
Spinal Cord
Long bundle of neurons carrying messages to and from the body to the brain, responsible for reflexes.
175
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord.
176
Somatic Nervous System
Part of the PNS controlling voluntary muscles and movement.
177
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Controls involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.
178
Sympathetic Division
Part of the ANS responsible for reacting to stress and bodily arousal.
179
Parasympathetic Division
Part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal.
180
Scientific approach
A system of gathering data to reduce bias and error in measurement.
181
Psychology's goals
Description (what is happening), Explanation (why is it happening), Prediction (when will it happen again), Control (how can it be changed).
182
Steps in Scientific Approach
Perceive the question, Form a hypothesis (Tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations), Test the hypothesis, Draw conclusions, Report your results (Others may replicate study or experiment to see whether the same results will be obtained to demonstrate the reliability of results).
183
Naturalistic Observation
Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.
184
Advantage of Naturalistic Observation
Provides a realistic picture of behavior.
185
Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation
Observer effect, Observer bias, Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold.
186
Laboratory Observation
Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.
187
Advantages of Laboratory Observation
Control over the environment, Allows the use of specialized equipment.
188
Disadvantages of Laboratory Observation
Artificial situation may result in artificial behavior, Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses.
189
Case Study
Study of one individual in great detail.
190
Case studies Advantages
Provides a tremendous amount of detail.
191
Case studies Disadvantages
Findings cannot be easily applied to others.
192
Famous Case Study
Phineas Gage, known for his survival of an accident that resulted in major personality changes due to a brain injury.
193
Surveys
Researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under study.
194
Population
The entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested.
195
Advantages for surveys
Data can be collected from large numbers of people, and it is possible to study covert behaviors.
196
Disadvantages for surveys
Results may not be meaningful if the sample is not representative; there may be a courtesy bias.
197
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables.
198
Variable
Anything that can change or vary.
199
Prediction
Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable.
200
Correlation Coefficient (r)
A value that represents the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.
201
Experiment
A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
202
Operationalization
A specific definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.
203
Independent Variable
The variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.
204
Dependent Variable
The variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of subjects.
205
Experimental Group
Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.
206
Control Group
Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and may receive a placebo treatment.
207
Random Assignment
The process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups randomly, to control for confounding variables.
208
Longitudinal Design
A research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time.
209
Cross-Sectional Design
A research design in which several different participant age-groups are studied at one particular point in time.
210
Cross-Sequential Design
A research design that combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
211
Cohort Effect
The impact on development when a group of people share a common time period or life experience.
212
Interval Data
Data where the numbers show order, direction, and a consistent difference in values, but there is no "true zero."
213
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.
214
Positive Correlation
A type of correlation where variables are related in the same direction.
215
Negative Correlation
A type of correlation where variables are related in opposite directions.
216
T-Tests
A statistical test that explores the difference between the means of two groups.
217
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
A statistical test that compares mean values across three or more groups.
218
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and unlearned response. Elements of classical conditioning
219
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
An involuntary and unlearned response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning
220
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning
221
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning
222
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned, reflex-like response to a conditioned stimulus. Elements of classical conditioning
223
Operant Conditioning
The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.
224
Thorndike's Law of Effect
If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.
225
B.F. Skinner
A behaviorist who studied observable, measurable behavior and gave "operant conditioning" its name.
226
Operant
Any behavior that is voluntary.
227
Reinforcement
Any event or stimulus that, when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.
228
Primary Reinforcer
Any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch.
229
Secondary Reinforcer
Any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.
230
Positive Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus.
231
Negative Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.
232
Partial Reinforcement Effect
A response that is reinforced after some—but not all—correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction.
233
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement of each and every correct response.
234
Fixed Interval Schedule
An interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.
235
Variable Interval Schedule
The interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event.
236
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.
237
Attention
The learner must first pay attention to the model to learn anything through observation.
238
Memory
The learner must be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in a process.
239
Imitation
The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model.
240
Desire
The learner must have the motivation to perform the action.
241
Concepts
Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
242
Formal Concepts
Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features.
243
Natural Concepts
Concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world.
244
Prototype
A concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept. Prototypes develop according to exposure a person has to objects in that category.
245
Schemas
Mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people.
246
Scripts
A kind of schema that involves a familiar sequence of activities.
247
Problem Solving
Occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
248
Decision Making
The process of identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives.
249
Trial and Error
Problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.
250
Algorithms
Very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Will always result in a correct solution if one exists to be found.
251
Heuristic
An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a "rule of thumb" or mental shortcut.
252
Representative Heuristic
A heuristic where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype.
253
Availability Heuristic
A heuristic where people base their judgments on the availability of information in their memories.
254
Working Backward
A problem-solving strategy where one starts at the end goal and works backward to determine the steps needed to reach that goal.
255
Subgoals
Breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable parts to solve it more easily.
256
Functional Fixedness
A block to problem-solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions, limiting one's ability to see other potential uses.
257
Mental Set
The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
258
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.
259
Creativity
The process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in new ways to generate novel and useful solutions.
260
Convergent Thinking
A problem-solving approach where a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer.
261
Divergent Thinking
A problem-solving approach where a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.
262
Short-term Memory (STM; Working Memory)
The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.
263
Selective Attention
The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.
264
Working Memory
An active system that processes the information in short-term memory.
265
Central Executive
Part of working memory responsible for directing attention and processing information.
266
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Part of working memory responsible for processing visual and spatial information.
267
Phonological Loop
Part of working memory responsible for processing verbal information.
268
Long-term Memory (LTM)
The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
269
Duration
The length of time a memory is stored.
270
Elaborative Rehearsal
A method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way.
271
Carol Dweck’s Self-theory of Motivation
A theory that suggests an individual's view of themselves can influence their need for achievement.
272
Need for Achievement
A psychological driver that compels individuals to excel and succeed.
273
Locus of Control
The extent to which individuals believe they can control events that affect them.
274
Internal Locus of Control
The belief that one can control their own life and outcomes.
275
External Locus of Control
The belief that outside forces such as luck or fate control one's life.
276
Stimulus motive
A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.
277
Arousal theory
A theory of motivation suggesting that individuals seek to maintain an optimal level of tension by increasing or decreasing stimulation.
278
Sensation seeker
Individuals who need more arousal to reach their optimal level of tension.
279
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A theory proposing several levels of needs that individuals must strive for before reaching self-actualization.
280
Self-actualization
According to Maslow, the point at which individuals have satisfied lower needs and achieved their full human potential.
281
Peak experiences
Times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved, as suggested by Maslow.
282
Self-determination theory
A theory suggesting that the social context of an action affects the type of motivation for the action.
283
Autonomy
The need to be in control of one’s own behavior and goals.
284
Competence
The need to be able to master the challenging tasks of one’s life.
285
Relatedness
The need to feel a sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others.
286
Stress
Physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events perceived as threatening or challenging.
287
Stressors
Events that cause a stress reaction.
288
Distress
The effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors.
289
Eustress
The effect of positive events or the optimal amount of stress needed to promote health and well-being.
290
Pressure
The psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior from an outside source.
291
Uncontrollability
The degree of control a person has over a particular event or situation; less control leads to greater stress.
292
Frustration
The psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need.
293
External frustrations
Conditions such as losses, rejections, failures, and delays that lead to frustration.
294
Internal frustrations
Frustration that occurs when the goal or need cannot be attained due to internal or personal characteristics.
295
Possible reactions to frustration
Persistence (continuing efforts), aggression (harming or destroying), escape or withdrawal (leaving the stressor), displaced aggression (taking out frustrations on a different target).
296
Persistence
Continuation of efforts to overcome or get around whatever is causing frustration.
297
Aggression
Actions intended to harm or destroy.
298
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
A theory proposing that frustration often leads to aggression.
299
Displaced aggression
Redirecting one's frustrations or aggressive impulses toward a target that is more available or less threatening than the original source of frustration.
300
Escape or withdrawal
Removing oneself from the presence of a stressor or frustrating situation.
301
Abnormality
Deviation from what is considered typical or usual behavior, thought patterns, or emotions; can be defined in various ways, including statistical rarity, deviation from social norms, subjective discomfort, and inability to function normally.
302
Statistical rarity
Defining abnormality based on how infrequently a behavior, thought, or emotion occurs within a population.
303
Deviation from social norms
Defining abnormality based on behavior, thoughts, or emotions that violate or differ significantly from societal expectations or standards.
304
Situational context
Recognizing that what is considered abnormal behavior may depend on the specific context or environment in which it occurs.
305
Subjective discomfort
Defining abnormality based on an individual's experience of emotional distress or pain related to a behavior or thought process.
306
Inability to function normally
Defining abnormality based on an individual's difficulty adapting to the demands of daily living, which may impair their ability to work, maintain relationships, or care for themselves.
307
Maladaptive
Describing behavior that is counterproductive or harmful to an individual's well-being or success in daily life.
308
International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
An international standard diagnostic tool for epidemiology, health management, and clinical purposes. Published by the World Health Organization (WHO).
309
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
A classification system of mental disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for healthcare professionals to diagnose and classify mental disorders.
310
Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR)
The latest edition of the DSM, providing criteria for diagnosing mental disorders, including descriptions, symptoms, and other criteria.
311
Pros of Diagnostic Labels
Provide a common language for professionals, Establish distinct categories for treatment and understanding, Can be time-saving and life-saving tools
312
Cons of Diagnostic Labels
May lead to prejudice or stigmatization, Can introduce bias, Psychology student's syndrome where individuals may mistakenly believe they have disorders they are studying.
313
Affect
In psychology, a term indicating "emotion" or "mood."
314
Mood disorders
Disorders in which mood is severely disturbed.
315
Anxiety disorders
Class of disorders in which the primary symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety.
316
Phobia
An irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity.
317
Social anxiety disorder
Fear of interacting with others or being in social situations that might lead to a negative evaluation.
318
Specific phobia
Fear of objects or specific situations or events.
319
Claustrophobia
Fear of being in a small, enclosed space.
320
Acrophobia
Fear of heights.
321
Agoraphobia
Fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible.
