Cancer detection and treatment Flashcards
What are the objectives of cancer treatment?and what are the Indications?
- It is important that the goal of treatment is clear in order to manage the expectations of the patient, their relatives and the treating team
- It is a requirement in the UK that the goal of treatment is recorded in the medical notes of the patient
- The goal can be either with curative intent or for palliation and there are four main indications for therapy
Indications
Metastatic disease(improve quality life,palliation)
The goal of treatment is an improvement in symptoms with a focus on improving quality of life and survival increments are secondary
As a result the treatment should be well-tolerated and aim to minimise adverse effects
Accept limited toxicity but not at the expense of performance status
Adjuvant therapy(In addition to surgery)
Adjuvant therapy is in addition to another intervention, often surgery (first) that is designed to cytoreduce the tumour bulk and removes all macroscopic disease
Focus is on achieving an improvement in disease-free and overall survival
Intention is on eradicating the micrometastatic disease that remains
Greater toxicity is accepted as the patient is chasing cure of their cancer
May have increased morbidity and mortality associated with the treatment
Primary therapy (neoadjuvant)-Chemo first to reduce tumour size,then surgery)
Primary medical therapy, is where chemotherapy is administered first before a planned cytoreductive procedure (usually surgery)
Can result in a reduced requirement for surgery, increase the likelihood of successful debulking, reduce the duration of hospitalisation and improve the fitness of the patient prior to interval debulking
This approach has the same goals as adjuvant treatment but creates opportunity for translational research to measure responses to treatment and correlate with subsequent specimens removed at the time of surgery.
Most commonly used for an inoperable patient (technical or fitness factors)
Can be used to determine adjuvant goals
Chemoprevention-eg.Tamoxifen
Treatment used in selective at risk groups to prevent the development of cancer
Agents used are to modify risk and improve survival
Only accept very low incidence of toxicity
Many chemotherapy agents are themselves carcinogenic
Impact on overall survival needs careful evaluation
What are the different treatment approaches?
The dosing schedule and interval is determined by the choice of drugs and recovery of the cancer and normal tissues
For most common chemotherapy regimens, the treatment is administered every 21 or 28 days, which defines one cycle
A course of treatment often uses up to 6 cycles of treatment
An increase in effectiveness can be achieved by changing the approach to treatment
In some cases this will increase toxicity too, but it can change the nature of the toxicity and such developments are evaluated in clinical trials
Low-dose therapy is the standard approach and most palliative chemotherapy is given in this manner
The next cycle is started once the bone marrow function has recovered sufficiently to start the treatment (neutrophils >1.0x109/L and platelets >100x109/L)
High-dose therapy uses a higher individual drug dose to achieve a higher cell kill but results in more bone marrow toxicity
This can be minimised by using G-CSF
This approach allows more drug to be delivered within the same schedule of administration but the total received dose can be less than the intended dose due to limitations of non-haematological toxicity
Dose dense therapy involves fractionating the intended dose of drug and administering each fraction on a more frequent basis (often weekly)
Each individual dose produces less toxicity but the anticancer effect is related to the accumulative dose over time
Such an approach can overcome drug resistance, produce a greater cell kill and in some cases produce a response with weekly administration when the 3-weekly schedule demonstrates a lack of response or even disease progression
Alternating therapy involves giving different drugs in an alternating manner
This is most commonly used with haematological malignancies and is designed to treat different subpopulations of cancer cells where individual clones of cells might be resistant to one or more of the agents
How can toxicity be assessed?
Most anticancer treatment is given at the maximum dose tolerated by the patient and adverse effects are inevitable
There are common toxicity criteria (CTC) scales that rate the severity of several hundred side-effects on a four-point scale
This allows an objective measurement and comparison over time throughout treatment
Detailed information and the current version of the CTC is maintained by the National Cancer Institute and is available at http://ctep.cancer.gov/reporting/ctc.html
How can treatment be evaluated?
The evaluation of treatments includes an assessment of overall survival duration, response to treatment, remission rate, disease-free survival and response duration, quality of life, and treatment toxicity
Uniform criteria have been established to measure these, including the response evaluation criteria in solid tumours (RECIST)
This allows clinicians to accurately inform patients of the prognosis, effectiveness and toxicity of chemotherapy and empowers patients to take an active role in treatment decisions
Overall survival rate is the percentage of patients in a study or treatment group that are alive for a certain period of time after the diagnosis of cancer
This is usually stated as a 5-year survival rate, which is the percentage of patients in a defined group that are alive five years after diagnosis or treatment
Remission rate is the percentage of patients that achieve a state where the cancer is no longer detectible
This is complete remission where all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although cancer still may be in the body
In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared
Disease-free survival is the length of time after treatment for cancer during which a patient survives with no symptoms or signs of the disease
Disease-free survival may be used in a clinical trial to measure how well a new treatment works
Response is usually assessed by RECIST 1.1 criteria with pre-treatment documentation of target and non-target lesions
All measurable lesions up to a maximum of two lesions per organ and five lesions in total, representative of all involved organs should be identified as target lesions and measured at baseline
Target lesions should be selected on the basis of their size (lesions with the longest diameter) and their suitability for accurate repeated measurements (either by imaging techniques or clinically)
A sum of the longest diameter (LD) for all target lesions will be calculated and recorded as the baseline sum LD, used as a reference to characterise the objective response. All other lesions (or sites of disease) should be identified as non-target lesions and be recorded at baseline
Measurable disease is defined as at least one lesion that can be accurately measured in at least one dimension (longest diameter (LD) to be recorded)
Each lesion must be >10mm when assessed by CT and MRI (if the slice thickness is ≤5mm), and clinical examination; or >20mm when measured by plain X-ray
(For CT and MRI scans where the slice thickness is >5mm, measurability is defined as a lesion with LD > 2x the slice thickness)
For malignant lymph nodes, short axis diameter must by >15mm to be considered pathological and measurable
Non-measurable disease includes aspects that are more subjective in their assessment and based upon factors such as tumour marker levels, presence of ascites or effusions
Residual disease is that left at completion of planned treatment and if present indicates resistance to the treatment and is therefore an adverse prognostic factor
In some circumstances it may be difficult to distinguish residual disease from normal tissue, particularly in patients with post-operative changes following abdominal or pelvic surgery
When the evaluation of complete response depends on this determination, it is recommended that the residual lesion be investigated (fine needle aspirate/biopsy) to confirm the complete response status
What is the Future of Cancer Chemotherapy?
Targeted therapies are now integrated with conventional chemotherapy
Treatment may be optimised to the individual patient
Combinations will be important
Sequencing may be crucial
More targets-not only cancer cells
Rethink the process of screening and clinical trials
What Investigations can be done for anaplastic carcinoma in cervical nodes
CXR; sputum cytology (most reliable in small cell lung cancer)
Thyroid scan + needle biopsy
Nasopharyngeal assessment
Consider diagnosis of undifferentiated lymphoma (exclude with immunophenotyping)
What Investigations are done for squamous cell carcinoma in inguinal nodes
Careful examination of legs, vulva, penis, perineum for primary tumour
Pelvic examination (exclude vaginal/cervical cancer)
Proctoscopy/colposcopy (exclude anal/cervical cancer)
Which positive immunohistochemical staining on material obtained from a cervical biopsy would imply the presence of human papillomavirus infection?
p21
How common is bowel cancer and what are the risk factors?
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer and second most common cause of cancer death in the UK. Occurrence is strongly related to age, with 90% of cases occurring in people aged 50 years and over. It is significantly more common in the developed world, occurring most frequently in New Zealand, Canada, USA and UK and lower in Asia, Africa (among blacks), and South America (except Argentina and Uruguay).
Gender: Overall, the incidence of colorectal cancer and mortality rates are higher in men than in women; tumours of the colon are slightly more frequent in women than in men (1.2:1), whereas rectal carcinomas are more common in men than in women (1.7:1).
Increasing age is the most important risk factor for most cancers. Other risk factors for colorectal cancer include the following:
- Family history of colorectal cancer in a first-degree relative.[[2]
- Personal history of colorectal adenomas, colorectal cancer, or ovarian cancer.[[3]
- Hereditary conditions, including familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer [HNPCC]).[[6](
- Personal history of long-standing chronic ulcerative colitis or Crohn colitis.[[7](
- Excessive alcohol use.[[8]
- Cigarette smoking.[[9]
- Race/ethnicity: African American.[[10](
- Obesity.
What is the pathogenesis of bowel cancer?
Over 70% of all colorectal cancers are adenocarcinomas arising in the mucosa from benign adenomatous polyps. Adenomas are typically slow growing, with a minority progressing to malignancy if they are not surgically removed. This risk of malignant transformation is increased with increasing size of the adenoma and with the length of time it has been present. Once a tumour has become established, it can spread through the layers of the bowel wall and may eventually metastasise to the liver, lungs, bone, brain and skin. Several genetic alterations have been implicated in the progression of benign adenomas to invasive adenocarcinomas.
Approximately 5% of all colorectal cancer cases occur as a consequence of genetic syndromes, the most common of which is hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome type I). HNPCC develops as a consequence of germ-line mutations in one of several DNA mismatch repair genes and carries a 40% lifetime risk of developing colorectal cancer. The condition is transmitted in an autosomal dominant pattern. Patients with HNPCC typically develop colorectal cancer in the fourth decade of life. Other malignancies such as ovarian, endometrial, gastric, urinary and hepatobiliary cancer, may occur and these are recognised as Lynch syndrome type II.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a more rare type of hereditary colorectal cancer. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern and arises as a result of germ-line mutations in the tumour suppressor geneAPC.From a young age,affected patients develop numerous benign colonic polyps, which will eventually transform into cancerous lesions, typically in the third and fourth decades of life. Prophylactic colectomy is therefore strongly advised.
The molecular pathogenesis and multistep development of colorectal cancer is covered in the presentation on Carcinogenesis and you should review this if not done already.
Histological types of colon cancer include:
- Adenocarcinoma - most colon cancers - (mucinous (colloid) adenocarcinoma & signet ring adenocarcinoma
- Scirrhous tumours
- Neuroendocrine: Tumours with neuroendocrine differentiation typically have a poorer prognosis than pure adenocarcinoma variants
How can the features of a left sided bowel cancer be differentiated from those of a right-side?
In its early stages, colorectal cancer is often asymptomatic and hence 55% of patients present with advanced disease. Patients with right-sided cancer typically present with a palpable mass in the right iliac fossa, diarrhoea, weight loss, anaemia and occult gastrointestinal bleeding. The clinical features of a left-sided cancer include a palpable mass in the left iliac fossa, change in bowel habit (most commonly constipation), tenesmus, rectal bleeding and signs and symptoms of bowel obstruction. Patients with left-sided cancer typically present earlier than those with right-sided cancer.
What factor Contributes to the highest risk of Cancer in UC?How can they screened?
Pancolitis
Screening-Colonoscopy with multiple biopsies
What is the most likely explanation for the left iliac fossa mass?
Clinical presentation of bowel cancer?
a)Cancer, Diverticulitis
Clinical presentation of bowel cancer?-think and check notion
What complication can occur with a bowel tumour and If distant sites of disease are present, which sites are most likely?
Bowel obstruction, rupture of bowel causing peritonitis
Sites-Liver,kidney,bladder,brain,bone
What Investigations can be done for bowel cancer and how can they be staged?
Laboratory tests
Routine bloods should be performed for all suspected cases. A full blood count (FBC) may show a microcytic anaemia (an iron-deficiency anaemia), as well as LFTs and clotting.
The tumour marker Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA) should not be used as a diagnostic test, due to poor sensitivity and specificity, however it is used to monitor disease progression and should be conducted both pre- and post-treatment, screening for recurrence.
Imaging
The gold standard for diagnosis of colorectal cancer is via colonoscopy with biopsy. If a colonoscopy is not suitable for the patient, such as from frailty, co-morbidities, or intolerance, a flexible sigmoidoscopy or CT colonography can be performed for initial diagnosis.
Once the diagnosis is made, several other investigations are required (primarily for staging):
CT scan (Chest/Abdomen/Pelvis) to look for distant metastases and local invasion A full colonoscopy or CT colonogram is required to check for a 2nd (synchronous) tumour if not used initially MRI rectum (for rectal cancers only) to assess the depth of invasion and potential need for pre-operative chemotherapy Endo-anal ultrasound (for early rectal cancers, T1 or T2 only) to assess suitability for trans-anal resection
Teatment decisions can be made with reference to the TNM (tumour, node, metastasis) classification rather than to the older Dukes or the Modified Astler-Coller classification schema.
Dukes’ Staging
Like many other tumours, colorectal cancers are staged according to the TNM system. This stages the cancer according to the depth the tumour invades the bowel wall (T stage), the extent of spread to local lymph nodes (N stage), and whether or not there are distant metastasis (M stage). The Duke’s staging system has now been largely superseded but is still used at some centres for additional staging detail.
Stage Description 5 Year Survival
A Confined beneath the muscularis propria 90%
B Extension through the muscularis propria 65%
C Involvement of regional lymph nodes 30%
D Distant metastasis <10%
What screening is available for colorectal Ca?What is referral criteria
Colorectal Cancer Screening
In the UK, screening is offered every 2 years to men and women aged 60-75 years. For most of the UK, a faecal immunochemistry test (FIT) is used, superseding the faecal occult test, which utilises antibodies against human haemoglobin to detect blood in faeces.
If any of the samples are positive, patients are offered an appointment with a specialist nurse and further investigation via colonoscopy. Since its introduction in 2006, the NHS Bowel Cancer Screening Programme has increased detection of colorectal cancer in people aged 60-69 by 11%
In the UK, NICE guidance recommends that patients should be referred for urgent investigation of suspected bowel cancer if:
≥40yrs with unexplained weight loss and abdominal pain
≥50yrs with unexplained rectal bleeding
≥60yrs with iron‑deficiency anaemia or change in bowel habit
Positive occult blood screening test.
How can bowel cancer be treated and what is use of CEA?
Whilst this patient has a raised serum CEA, this is not diagnostic in isolation but could be used to correlate response to subsequent therapeutic intervention. Whilst microscopic disease cannot be detected using conventional imaging, the high value of the CEA suggests that there may be a greater risk of more widespread microscopic disease but the treatment stratification relies on staging the patient and for that, the primary tumour and nearby lymph nodes need to be surgically removed. Cystic structures in the liver can be a normal variant and MR imaging is best to distinguish the features of metastatic disease from simple cysts. This may be important as pre-operative chemotherapy for metastatic disease and resection of solitary liver metastasis can be considered in selected patients.
All patients should be discussed with the multidisciplinary team (MDT). The only definitive curative option is surgery, although chemotherapy and radiotherapy have an important role as neoadjuvant and adjuvant* treatments, alongside their role in palliation.
Surgical
Surgery is the mainstay of curative management for localised malignancy in the bowel. The general plan in most surgical management plans is suitable regional colectomy, to ensure the removal of the primary tumour with adequate margins and lymphatic drainage, followed either by primary anastomosis or formation of a stoma:
Right Hemicolectomy or Extended Right Hemicolectomy
The surgical approach for caecal tumours or ascending colon tumours, with the extended option performed for any transverse colon tumours. During the procedure the ileocolic, right colic, and right branch of the middle colic vessels (branches of the SMA) are divided and removed with their mesenteries.
Left Hemicolectomy
The surgical approach for descending colon tumours. Similar to the right hemicolectomy, the left branch of the middle colic vessels (branch of SMA/SMV), the inferior mesenteric vein, and the left colic vessels (branches of the IMA/IMV) are divided and removed with their mesenteries.
Sigmoidcolectomy
The surgical approach for sigmoid colon tumours. In this instance, the IMA is fully dissected out with the tumour in order to ensure adequate margins are obtained.
Anterior Resection
The surgical approach for high rectal tumours, typically if >5cm from the anus. This approach is favoured as leaves the rectal sphincter intact if an anastomosis is performed (unlike AP resections). Often a defunctioning loop ileostomy is performed to protect the anastomosis and reduce complications in the event of an anastomotic leak, which can then be reversed electively four to six months later.
Abdominoperineal (AP) Resection
The surgical approach for low rectal tumours, typically <5cm from the anus. This technique involves excision of the distal colon, rectum and anal sphincters, resulting in a permanent colostomy.
*Elective colectomies are often performed laparoscopically, as this offers faster recovery times, reduced surgical site infection risk, and reduced post-operative pain, with no difference in disease recurrence or overall survival rates when compared to open surgery
Hartmann’s Procedure
This procedure is used in emergency bowel surgery, such as bowel obstruction or perforation. This involves a complete resection of the recto-sigmoid colon with the formation of an end colostomy and the closure of the rectal stump
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is indicated typically in patients with advanced disease (adjuvant chemotherapy in Dukes’ C colorectal cancer has been found to reduce mortality by 25%).
An example chemotherapy regime for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer is FOLFOX, comprised of Folinic acid, Fluorouracil (5-FU), and Oxaliplatin, which has been demonstrated to significantly improvement in 3-year disease-free survival for patients with advanced colon cancer.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy can be used in rectal cancer (it is rarely given in colon cancer due to the risk of damage to the small bowel), most often as neo-adjuvant treatment.
It is of particular use in patients with rectal cancers which look on MRI to have a “threatened” circumferential resection (i.e. within 1mm). They can undergo pre-operative long-course chemo-radiotherapy to shrink the tumour, thereby increasing the chance of complete resection and cure.
Palliative Care
Very advanced colorectal cancers will be managed palliatively, focusing on reducing cancer growth and ensuring adequate symptom control. Whilst a large variety of palliative care options are available to such patients, important surgical options that can offered include:
Endoluminal stenting can be used to relieve acute bowel obstruction in patients with left-sided tumours
The main side-effects of stents are perforation, migration, and incontinence
Stoma formation can be performed for patients with acute obstruction, usually with either a defunctioning stoma or palliative bypass
Resection of secondaries, not commonly performed but can done with adjuvant chemotherapy for any liver metastases
What are the factors associated with recurrence?
the degree of red and processed meat intake before diagnosis was associated with a higher risk of death
Aspirin may reduce risk?check notion
What are the different imaging techniques used to view the colon?
So a colonoscopy examines from the anus all the way to the ceacum, and can also enter the small intestine to view the terminal ileum.
Colonoscopy v flexisigmoidoscopy v rigid sigmoidoscopy:
There are couple of procedures similar to a colonoscopy, however there are key difference
Colonoscopy– views of the full colon, from rectum to terminal ileum
Flexi-sigmoidoscopy– used to view pathology on left side of colon, from the rectum to splenic flexure
Rigid sigmoidoscopy– used to view rectal pathology, from the rectum to approximately 25cm along the bowel. This is less popular now as usually a flexisigmoidoscopy would be done instead
Proctoscopy– used to view the rectum, often to carry out minor haemorrhoid procedures
CT colonography– a specific type of CT scan used if a patient is unable to have colonoscopy, Gas is used to inflate the colon, which allows the bowel wall to be imaged, therefore creating a ‘virtual’ colonoscopy
What are Indications for colonoscopy?
Diagnostic > surveillance > therapeutic (of these diagnostic is the commonest reason)
Bowel cancer screening:The NHS invites all people for bowel screening at the age of 55. This is usually a flexi-sigmoidoscopy rather than a colonoscopy. Although this does occasionally diagnose a cancer, the main purpose is to look and remove polyps, which can develop into a cancer if left untreated.
Most colonoscopies will involve biopsies to be taken. This allows the bowel to be examined from a histopathology point of view, which aides diagnosis and surveillance.
Diagnostic:
Symptoms…
- PR bleeding / faecal occult blood
- Change in bowels habit (constipation / diarrhoea, usually for >6 weeks)
- Weight loss
- Iron deficient anaemia (microcytic anaemia can be the first sign of a right sided colon cancer)
Commonest differentials…
- Cancer (if there is a concern that the diagnosis might be a cancer, the patient should be referred via the 2-wee-wait pathway to receive an urgent colonoscopy)
- Inflammatory bowel disease
- Diverticular disease
Surveillance:
- Polyps
- Previous cancer
- IBD
Therapeutic:
- Polypectomy (removal of polyps
- Colonic stenting (used most commonly in palliative treatment of colorectal cancers)
- Colonic dilatation (used most commonly in strictures of the colon)
What are Indications for colonoscopy?
Main risks:
- Pain
- Bleeding
- Perforation
- Requirement for major operation
- Missing lesion
- Complications of sedation
These should all be included on a written consent form that is signed by the patient and the endoscopist before the procedure.
What preparation is needed before colonoscopy?
Do a mosler
Medication: certain medications should be stopped before the procedure, these include anticoagulants, medications containing iron, and codeine
Diet: Patients are advised to drink plenty of fluids and have a low fibre diet for 2-3 days beforehand
Bowel prep: usually requires the patient to take strong laxative sachets the day before or on the day of the procedure. This varies slightly between hospitals, but patients are always given clear instructions of how to take it. The commonest types used are citrafleet, picolax, klean-prep, and moviprep
After the procedure:
·The patient is monitored and is usually able to go home after an hour or so
·The images and pathology are reviewed, and then the patient is contacted with the results. Depending on the findings the patient is informed via letter or is brought back to hospital for a face-to-face appointment.
How common is cancer?
- Cancer represents a significant economic burden for the global economy and is now the third leading cause of death worldwide
- By 2030, it is projected that there will be 26 million new cancer cases and 17 million cancer deaths per year
- The developing world is disproportionately affected by cancer and in 2008 developing nations accounted for 56% of new cancer cases and 75% of cancer deaths
What are the most common cancer associated with Smoking?
Tobacco contributes to the development of 3 million cancers (lung, oropharynx, larynx, bladder, kidney), which could be prevented by smoking cessation