Canada Flashcards
1
Q
What is the background to British presence in Canada?
A
- Prior to the seven years war, the Northern region of Canada had been under the control of the French and was known as New France
- Lower Canada was under the control of the British
- After the war, the French lost all their territories in Canada, this meant that the British inherited a new colony that was culturally French
- These regions renamed Upper and Lower Canada
- After the loss of the British colonies in 1783, Britain was not determined to have a repeated revolution in Canada
- They had installed a parliament and allowed the colonists to have a say over their taxation
- Despite this, in 1837, both regions decided to rebel against the crown
2
Q
What were the fundamental problems with government in Upper Canada?
A
- At the heart of the issue in Canada was the lack of a truly representative democracy
- The region was governed by a Lieutenant governor who was appointed by London, he was reliant on the tax raising powers of the locally elected legislative assembly
- This was complicated further by the appointed council who also held executive powers, the members of the council acted as ministers for the lieutenant general
- Members of the council were held by a number of notable families known as the family compact
- The elected legislative assembly and appointed legislative council that served as the upper house
- This meant that the appointed council could block the elected assembly
- The family compact was held together by a shared view of Anglican values and a reluctance to change the constitution as it might loosen their power
- This lack of true democracy was the driving force behind much of the anger felt by colonists
3
Q
What were the fundamental problems of land ownership in Upper Canada?
A
- The anger felt at lack of democracy was further emphasised over the land grant system
- Most of the land was held by the Crown and granted to settlers
- One seventh of the land was granted to the Anglican Church so they could make a profit by selling the land
- However, the majority of the population was not Anglican so this generated tensions with the other denominations
- Parliament was convinced that placating the family compact was key to maintaining control
- Free land grants would also attract unwanted immigration as the poor flocked to the chance of becoming land owners
4
Q
What were the tensions in Upper Canada?
A
- The conflict over land and democracy overlapped in the 1830s when the family compact began to sell land in order to raise money for infrastructure
- Tensions in Upper Canada were rooted in the lack of infrastructure
- This meant that the government was spending vast amounts on roads and canals
- The issue was that the appointed council raised funds by selling land to the Canada company rather than raising revenue through taxation
- This meant that the only leverage the assembly wielded was disregarded
- Tensions were further worsened by the ongoing land grants to the Anglican Church
- This emphasised the calls of Robert Baldwin who wanted to limit the power of the family compact and pass it over to the elected assembly
5
Q
What were the fundamental problems with government in Lower Canada?
A
- The government functioned in a similar way to Upper Canada, there was a governor appointed by London and an appointed body made up of British Loyalists, the Chateau Clique
- There was also an elected assembly which had power over taxation
- Britain had attempted to appease the French Canadians by ensuring their right to practise Catholicism and the Quebec Act of 1774 guaranteed the Church’s right to collect tithings and maintain their archaic land tenure system
6
Q
What were the fundamental problems of land ownership in Lower Canada?
A
- Land ownership was granted by a seigneur, he would grant land to small subsistence farmers
- This was the same principle of the feudal system that had been abandoned hundreds of years earlier
- Under this system there was little incentive for small land holders to invest in their land
- This meant that Lower Canadians remained trapped in a system of poverty and a huge wealth gap
- Also, when the harvest failed, Lower Canada failed to flourish and the British were quick to attack the French system, causing a cultural rift
7
Q
What were the tensions in Lower Canada?
A
- The province was French speaking and Catholic dominated
- The French Canadians were very protective of their identity and resented any move which they thought was an attempt to erode this
- The political system was very similar to Upper Canada in the government appointed members of the executive council from the British loyalists
- This group of influential businessmen became known as the Chateau Clique
- As the loyalists they were a minority yet held all the power it was essentially an English speaking oligarchy
- In the 1820s there was a agricultural crisis which resulted in hardship of tenants
- This led to the British blaming the backwards agricultural system and attempted a union of Canada in 1822 but this was fiercely blocked
- A growing political movement from Patriotes was formed to protect French traditions and culture
- Early indications of this clash were seen with Lord Dalhousie, he was governor of Lower Canada but clashed with the French
- He prorogued parliament instead of letting a Patriote be elected as speaker of the house
8
Q
What steps were taken towards revolution in Upper Canada?
A
- Anger over lack of democracy spilled over, Britain was revealed as totally unwilling to introduce meaningful reform
- By the 1830s there was an organised demand for reform, pioneered by Robert Baldwin who was seen as a head reformer
- Robert demanded for a responsible government and travelled to London to petition his demand
- In his absence, William Mackenzie demanded to adopt American government systems
- To make matters worse, the British government were encouraging large scale immigration to Canada, not only was this universally unpopular due to religious and racial tensions towards the Irish
- With one singular policy, the British managed to upset the entire region and alienate their core support, the British were funding the newly arrived immigrants with the Ops Township Scheme
- Tensions were further pushed by Lieutenant governors Colborne and Head
9
Q
What did Colborne contribute to the rebellion in Upper Canada?
A
- The first controversial Lieutenant, he was a more experienced governor but believed his role to be absolute
- Colborne began to fund a series of preparatory schools rather than universities as he was asked to
- His most controversial decision was to use money from the clergy reserves to support and expand the 44 Anglican Parishes, this was highly unwanted and forced his resignation
10
Q
What did Head contribute to the rebellion in Upper Canada?
A
- Head’s actions directly caused conflict, he was inexperienced and started his tenure by inviting some moderate into the appointed council
- During the next election Head campaigned vigorously, it was not typical for the Lieutenant governors to intervene in elections
- His intervention meant that the reformers were removed from the elected assembly, this highlighted tensions as people felt the only legal means of resistance had been removed and action was now the only option
- The view that democracy had been eroded was reinforced by the actions of head
- He extended the session, essentially increasing the period between elections and holding power for longer
- He also passed a law that prevented any members from the elected assembly from being appointed to the appointed council, this meant that any future governors could not bring moderates into the ranks of the appointed assembly, this was a direct trigger of rebellion
11
Q
What was the revolt in Upper Canada?
A
- Revolt in Upper Canada was a small and shambolic affair, the important thing is not the uprising itself but simply that fact that people felt moved enough to attempt it in the first place
- This was enough to stir Westminster into action
- A group of 1000 men gathered in Younge Street
- Men were led by Mackenzie, luckily for the British, he had no clear aim or direction
- Hundreds of men engaged in conflict with British loyalists
- Most were poorly armed farmers
- Mackenzie fled and was arrested
12
Q
How did Papineau contribute to the rebellion in Lower Canada?
A
- More intense than the revolution in Upper Canada
- This was due to the cultural element that played a major factor
- Papineau was the leader of the Patriotes, his leadership became very anti-British overtime and he rejected reforms and refused to agree to the payments of the civil list
- In 1834, 92 resolutions were published demanding more wide range reforms including efforts to preserve French culture
- This is significant as it offered an organised, coherent challenge to the British
- Papineau borrowed much of the language from the American War of Independence but in truth he was not interested in equality
- He was originally from an old Signeurial family and was interested in the protection of his power and French heritage
13
Q
How did the economic issues contribute to rebellion in Lower Canada?
A
- The 1830s was a period of economic hardship in Lower Canada
- The government was grounded by disagreements of levels of economic control, essentially, the Canadians wanted more economic control than what was offered
- Levels of immigrating were increasing economic hardship as they were poor and rarely brought in wealth or commerce
14
Q
What was the Gosford mission?
A
- Characterised as British ineptitude antagonising an already volatile situation
- An attempt to amend the grievances of Lower Canada, in theory it was a good idea and could reduce tensions
- This was wholly ineffective as Head leaked the terms of the enquiry which reveals that the British had no intention of bending to the demands of Patriotes
- This was confirmed in 1837 when Parliament passed the Russel Resolution, rejecting the 92 resolutions and confirming that confirming their right to allocate funds without consent of the assembly - mainly to pay government officials under the civil list
- The Russel resolution sparked outrage in the region, calls to boycott British trade and end tariffs with America were hightened
- Gosford attempted to ban all political and public gatherings, it was clear that revolution was now unavoidable
15
Q
What was the revolt in Lower Canada?
A
- Larger in scale to the revolt in Upper Canada
- British were concerned about the racial elements of the revolt, it was clear that the revolt would need to end with the Chateau Clique being dismantled
- 500 Patriotes arrested
16
Q
Who is Lord Durham?
A
- Lord Durham was a Whig, he was wealthy and enjoyed a high status in society but was willing to affect genuine change
- Instrumental in the 1832 Reform acts
- He was extremely intelligent and charismatic
- He was appointed by Lord Melbourne as high commissioner of Canada
- This gave him sweeping powers that superseded the ruling classes in both regions
- Melbourne partially appointed him to get rid of him because of his potential to be a liability
17
Q
What did Durham do prior to his departure?
A
- Ignored advice to take an entourage and instead chose to take close friends and advisers, this decision would prove pivotal
- His company included Thomas Turton and Gibbon Wakefield, both had been victims of scandals and was a perfect target for criticism from the Tory government directed at Melbourne
18
Q
How did Durham go about drafting his report?
A
- Upon his arrival he pranced through the streets on a white charger in the full former dress of a knight
- He did a number of things to deescalate tensions and gained immediate favour with the reformers
- He met often with large groups of reformers and made it clear that he was keen to hear them out, he issued a proclamation stating that he would work with any reformer seeking peaceful resolution
- Dissolved both the family compact and the Chateau Clique
- Reached out to the US to patrol borders, this prevented American and Canadian extremists from re-entering
- Immediately improved conditions for imprisoned rebels
- Set up a commission improving the land tenure system in Lower Canada and the way that land was granted to immigrants
- Eventually pardoned most rebels
19
Q
What were the roles of Wakefield and Buller?
A
- Wakefield advocated the idea of systematic colonisation, this stated that land should be sold at high prices to the immigrants and then the money would be reinvested into infrastructure
- Buller was sympathetic to the Patriotes and it was his suggestion to exile the rebels
20
Q
Why did Durham resign?
A
- Despite his efforts his time in Canada was only 4 months long
- His resignation was due to political affair, back in Westminster Melbourne was being criticised for Durham’s actions
- Durham’s choice of advisers and decision to pardon rebels was seen as overstepping his role
- Melbourne did not publicly defend Durham, this was enough to cause his resignation
- Durham’s wealth and connections may have reassured the rebels that he was able to affect real change in the way the Gosford mission had failed
21
Q
What were the outcomes of the Durham report?
A
- The amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada made the French a minority voice
- The rescinding of the Quebec Act and the archaic land tenure system improved the lives of tenants and boosted the economy
- The implementation of a responsible government
