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GCSE OCR Chemistry > C7 - Further Chemistry > Flashcards

C7 - Further Chemistry Flashcards

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1
Q

Give two examples of when Gas Chromatography is used.

A
  • When detecting banned substances in blood samples.
  • When analysing oil spills to identify sources of pollution.
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2
Q

When is chromatography used?

A

When you want to determine what unknown mixtures consist of.

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3
Q

What is a standard solution?

A

A solution containing a precisely known concentration of an element or substance.

A known weight of solute is dissolved to make a specific volume.

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4
Q

What is the formula for calculating percentage yield?

A

Percentage yield = (Actual yield / Theoretic yield) * 100.

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5
Q

What are the 5 stages of chemical production?

A
  1. Preparation of feedstocks (Starting materials).
  2. Chemical synthesis.
  3. Separation of products.
  4. Handling of by-products and waste.
  5. Monitoring purity.
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6
Q

Why do we calculate Rf value?

A

Because it allows the identification of unknown substances, by comparing with Rf values of known substances under the same conditions.

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7
Q

What is the formula for calculating percentage error of an experiment?

A

Range/Average * 100.

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8
Q

What are the problems with The Haber Process?

A

High temperatures and pressures are expensive, dangerous and have a high carbon footprint.

Therefore, scientists are always looking to find new catalysts, particularly ones that would mimic natural enzymes.

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9
Q

In Paper Chromatography, what is the stationary phase?

A

The medium that the solvent moves through (e.g: Paper).

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10
Q

During chromatography, some substances may be colourless - how are these identified?

A

By using locating agents. These are chemicals sprayed on the chromatogram, that reacts with the spots to cause coloration, or allow the viewing of spots under UV.

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11
Q

Give an example of a reversible reaction.

A

Ammonium chloride <–> Ammonia + Hydrogen Chloride.

NH4Cl(s) <–> NH3(g) + HCl(g).

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12
Q

What are the 5 stages of Paper Chromatography?

A
  1. If the substance you want to analyse is a solid, dissolve it in a suitable solvent.
  2. Place a spot of the resulting solution onto a sheet of chromatography paper on the pencil line and allow it to dry.
  3. Place the bottom edge of the paper into a suitable solvent.
  4. The solvent will rise up the paper, and dissolve the ‘spot’, carrying it up the paper.
  5. The different chemicals in the mixture separate based on their properties and molecule sizes.
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13
Q

State the names of the two simplest alcohols and their molecular formula?

A
  • Methanol - CH3OH.
  • Ethanol - C2H5OH.
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14
Q

What are the two types of error - and how can you come about them?

A
  • Systematic error - Repeat measurements are consistently too high or too low.
  • Could be caused by having an incorrectly zeroed balance on the scales. All results would be incorrect by the same amount.
  • Random errors - Repeat measurements give different values.
  • Could be caused by one-off errors or when the meniscus isn’t on the calibration line.
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15
Q

State 3 ways ethanol is used on an industrial scale.

A
  • Feedstock.
  • Solvent.
  • Fuel.
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16
Q

Explain how ethanol can be produced using biotechnology.

A
  1. Create genetically modified E. coli bacteria.
  2. Feed the bacteria sugars within waste biomass (e.g: Wood waste, corn stalks and rice hulls), which they will convert to ethanol.
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17
Q

What is the standard reaction for:

Acid + Base –> ____________?

A

Acid + Base –> Salt + H2O.

Additional details taken from C6 flashcards:

  • When an acid reacts with an alkali, a salt and water are always made.
  • The Hydrogen ions (H+) and Hydroxide ions (OH-) join up to form Water (H+ + OH- –> H2O).
  • The negative ion from the acid and the positive ion from the alkali are left in solution to form the salt (e.g: Na+ acid, Cl- alkali).
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18
Q

What is the end point on a pH graph?

A

The point where a rapid change in pH occurs.

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19
Q

What does standard procedures cover?

A
  • Collecting samples.
  • Storing samples.
  • Preparing samples for analysis.
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20
Q

In Paper Chromatography, what is the mobile phase?

A

The solvent.

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21
Q

What is the standard reaction for:

Acid + Metal Carbonate –> ________?

A

Acid + Metal Carbonate –> Salt + H2O + CO2.

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22
Q

What is the standard reaction for:

Acid + Metal –> _____________?

A

Acid + Metal –> Metal Salt + H2.

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23
Q

How do companies improve the yield during The Haber Process?

A

Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen is recycled, which is much more cost effective than leaving the reaction long enough to reach a dynamic equilibrium.

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24
Q

What is another method of finding out the volume of an acid required to neutralise an alkali?

A

Use a pH probe.

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25
Q

In Gas Chromatography, what is the stationary phase?

A

A microscopic layer of liquid on an unreactive solid support.

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26
Q

State some uses of ammonia.

A

Any of the following:

  • Fertilisers.
  • Explosives.
  • Dyes.
  • Medicines.
  • A variety of other essential chemicals.
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27
Q

Carboxylic acids get their properties from the functional group ___________.

A

Carboxylic acids get their properties from the functional group

-COOH.

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28
Q

What are the 6 main stages of a quantitative analysis?

A
  1. Choose an analytical method and take a sample that represents the bulk material.
  2. Accurately measure out the sample.
  3. Dissolve the sample if it’s a solid.
  4. Measure a property of a solution that’s proportional to the amount of chemical in the sample.
  5. Calculate a value from the measurements.
  6. Estimate the uncertainty of your results.
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29
Q

State examples of bulk chemicals (Chemicals produced on a large scale).

A
  • Ammonia (NH3).
  • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
  • Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH).
  • Phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
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30
Q

Using a lower temperature and higher pressure enables a higher yield - why don’t we use lower temperatures and higher pressures?

A

It is a compromise between safety, cost, rate and yield.

450oC is a compromise between rate of reaction and yield.

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31
Q

What is the formula for calculating concentration and mass?

A

Concentration (g/dm3) = Mass (g) / Volume (dm3).

(Rearrangable)

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32
Q

How do plants get their nitrates, and what is the problem with this?

A

Plants get nitrates when nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert N2 in the air to nitrates using enzymes as catalysts.

However, this process is not sufficient enough to feed the world’s population, so we use synthetic fertilisers.

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33
Q

State the names of the two simplest carboxylic acids, and their molecular formulas.

A
  • Methanoic acid - HCOOH.
  • Ethanoic acid - CH3COOH.
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34
Q

Carboxylic acids are strong/weak acids.

A

Carboxylic acids are weak acids.

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35
Q

Alkanes do not react with aqueous reagents. Why is this?

A

Because the C-C and C-H bonds are strong and unreactive.

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36
Q

What are the 3 methods of estimating uncertainty in results?

A
  • Compare values from repeat samples to find the range.
  • Work out the average value.
  • State how confident you are about the results.
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37
Q

Governments have a duty to protect __________ and the __________.

A

Governments have a duty to protect people and the environment.

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38
Q

What type of reaction is more common? Exothermic or Endothermic?

A

Exothermic reactions are more common.

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39
Q

What is the standard formula for alkenes?

A

CnH2n

where n is the number of carbon atoms.

40
Q

What is the standard formula for alkane combustion?

A

Alkane + O2 –> Combustion –> CO2 + H2O.

N.B: The equation must be balanced.

41
Q

What are the characteristics and uses of esters?

A
  • They have distinctive smells, responsible for the smells and flavours in fruits.
  • They are used in the manufacture of perfumes and food products.
  • They are also found in solvents and plasticizers.
42
Q

State two ways of reducing environmental impacts when using chemicals.

A
  • Use chemicals that cause minimal harm to people and the environment.
  • Use chemicals that can be broken down into non-toxic substances that aren’t persistent in the environment.
43
Q

Titration can be used to calculate the concentration of an acid by finding out how much alkali is needed to neutralise it. Explain how this method works.

A

1. Fill a burette with an alkali of known concentration and take an initial reading.

  1. If you have been given a solid acid, accurately weigh out a sample of it and dissolve it in an accurately measured volume of distilled water.
  2. Use a glass pipette to measure the aqueous acid into a conical flask. This allows you to know the precise amount of acid used. A white tile should be placed under this flask.
  3. Add a few drops of the indicator phenolphthalein (It should stay colourless).
  4. Add alkali from the burette to the acid in the flash drop by drop.
  5. Swirl the flask to mix it well. Near the end of the reaction, the indicator will start to turn pink. Only when it changes colour permanently, it means the acid has been neutralised.
  6. Record the volume of alkali added by subtracting the initial reading from the final reading.
  7. Repeat the experiment until you get concordant results (+-0.1cm3) to ensure accuracy.

N.B: This can be inversed to find the concentration of an alkali.

44
Q

A relationship is set up between the stationary and mobile phase in chromatography - what is this called?

A

A dynamic equilibrium, set up for each component of the sample.

45
Q

What is meant by a dynamic equilibrium?

A

The point at which the forward and backward reactions happen at the same rate, therefore the concentration of the products and reactants doesn’t change.

46
Q

What is the standard procedure of storing samples?

A

Containers should be:

  • Clean and sterile.
  • Sealed.
  • Labelled.
  • Stored in a safe place.

This improves reliability, since there’s less room for human error.

47
Q

What are the uses of alcohols (Methanol and Ethanol).

A

Methanol

  • As a chemical feedstock.
  • In the manufacture of cosmetics.

Ethanol

  • As a solvent.
  • As a fuel.
48
Q

Explain how ethanol can be produced through fermentation.

A

N.B: This is how ethanol for use in alcoholic drinks is produced.

  1. Water and yeast are mixed with natural sugars at just above room temperature.
  2. Enzymes found in the yeast catalyse the formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide.
  3. The carbon dioxide is allowed to escape from the reaction vessel, but air is prevented from entering it.

Note that the concentration of ethanol is limited by the amount of sugar in the mixture and the fact that above a certain concentration, the ethanol kills the yeast. The concentration can be increased by distillation, a process also used to produce spirits such as whisky and brandy.

49
Q

What is the method for preparing esters?

A
  1. Add the correct carboxylic acid and alcohol to a round-bottom flask, along with a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.
  2. Fit a condenser vertically to the flask and heat the mixture strongly. This is called ‘heating under reflux’ because the vapours that evaporate are cooled and condense back into the flask.
  3. The condenser is rearranged so that the mixture can be heated gently and the ester is then distilled off as a gas from the reacting mixture.
  4. The distillate is transferred to a separating funnel where aqueous sodium carbonate is added in order to neutralise any remaining acid. The remaining acid is moved to the aqueous layer (The lower, more dense layer of the two liquids) and the ester is left in the upper organic layer.
  5. The organic layer is then transferred to a flask and solid anhydrous calcium chloride is added to remove any remaining water. The calcium chloride is removed by filtration and a final distillation is then performed to obtain the pure ester.
50
Q

__________ analysis is any method used to measure the amount of chemicals in a substance.

A

Quantitative analysis is any method used to measure the amount of chemicals in a substance.

51
Q

When interpreting titration results, you will need to convert from cm3 to dm3 - how do you do this?

A

Divide by 1000.

i.e: 1dm3 = 1000cm3.

52
Q

Vegetable oils are usually saturated/unsaturated molecules.

What are the properties of these molecules?

A

Animal fats are usually unsaturated molecules.

Properties

  • Double C=C bonds.
  • More reactive.
53
Q

Alcohols get their characteristics due to the presence of the functional group __________.

A

Alcohols get their characteristics due to the presence of the functional group

-OH

54
Q

What is the formula for calculating atom economy?

A

Atom Economy = (Mass of atoms in useful products / Total mass of atoms in the reactants) * 100.

55
Q

Carboxylic acids generally have pleasant/unpleasant smells.

A

Carboxylic acids generally have unpleasant smells.

56
Q

Compare the properties of alcohols with shorter chain lengths to those with longer chain lengths.

A

Short chain length

  • e.g: Methanol.
  • Low b.p - weak intermolecular forces.
  • Infinitely soluble up to propanol (After ethanol), then solubility decreases.

Long chain length

  • e.g: Octanol.
  • High b.p - strong intermolecular forces.
  • Less soluble in water - behaves more like an alkane.
  • Low density - floats on top of water (N.B: Shorter chain lengths have lower density, but the first 3 alcohols will dissolve in water - you don’t need to know why because it’s complicated).
57
Q

Several companies now develop materials from plants, what are the problems with this?

A
  • Lots of land is used.
  • Fertilisers use up a lot of energy during manufacture, and energy use should be minimised.
58
Q

What is the standard reaction for:

Acid + Metal oxide –> ____________?

A

Acid + Metal oxide –> Salt + H2O.

59
Q

What is retention time?

A

Retention time is used in Gas Chromatography and is the time taken from when a substance is injected into the system to when it is detected.

60
Q

What is the formula for calculating Rf value?

A

Rf value = Distance travelled by substance / Distance travelled by solvent.

61
Q

What are the advantages of using Gas Chromatography over Thin Layer Chromatography?

A
  • Greater separating power.
  • The ability to separate complex mixtures.
  • The ability to produce quantitative data from very small samples of liquids, gases and volatile solids.
62
Q

Describe the reactions with sodium for the following:

  • Alcohols.
  • Alkanes.
  • Water.
A
  • Alcohols - Sodium sinks, doesn’t melt and steadily gives off Hydrogen.
  • Alkanes - No reaction.
  • Water - Sodium melts, rushes around on the surface and rapidly gives off Hydrogen (You should know this one).
63
Q

What are the social and economical benefits of Green Chemistry?

A

Social

  • Cleaner air quality.
  • Cleaner buildings.
  • Improved water quality in rivers and lakes.

Economic

  • Reduced energy costs.
64
Q

What is the standard reaction for alcohols with sodium?

A

Alcohol + Sodium –> Sodium (alcohol)oxide + Hydrogen

e.g:

Ethanol + Sodium –> Sodium ethanoxide + Hydrogen

2C2H5OH(l) + 2Na(s) –> 2C2H5O-Na+(s) + H2(g).

65
Q

Explain how ethene can be produced, and how this can be used to produce ethanol through chemical synthesis.

A
  1. Crude oil undergoes fractional distillation.
  2. Long-chain hydrocarbons (alkanes) are vaporised and then cracked using a catalyst and heat.
  3. The molecules are purified using fractional distillation.
  4. The ethene that’s produced can be used for a feedstock and the remaining water is removed.
  5. Etene is then reacted with steam at a high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to produce ethanol: C2H4(g) + H2O(g) –> C2H5OH(g). Any unreacted products are recycled and used as the input.
66
Q

What are 3 methods for producing ethanol?

A
  • Synthesis (Not sustainable - uses fossil fuels as raw material).
  • Fermentation.
  • Biotechnology (Exploitation of biological process for industrial and other purposes, especially genetic modification).
67
Q

The Haber Process is used to produce ammonia. What is the reaction for this?

A

N2(g) + 3H2(g) <–> 2NH3(g).

68
Q

The Haber Process is a reversible reaction - how does this affect the yield?

A

The yield is only 15-30%.

69
Q

Animal fats are usually saturated/unsaturated molecules.

What are the properties of these molecules?

A

Animal fats are usually saturated molecules.

Properties

  • Single C-C bonds.
  • Unreactive.
70
Q

Describe activation energy in terms of breaking/making bonds in exo/endothermic reactions.

A

In a chemical reaction, the bonds in the reactants must be broken and new bonds made to form the products.

The activation energy is the energy needed to break bonds to start a reaction.

  • Breaking bonds is an endothermic process.
  • Making bonds is an exothermic process.

In other words, chemical reactions that absorb more energy to break the bonds in the reactants than is released when new bonds are made in the products, are endothermic.

On the other hand, chemical reactions in which more energy is released when new bonds are made than was absorbed to break the old bonds, are exothermic.

71
Q

What are the optimum conditions for ethanol fermentation?

A
  • Temperature.
  • pH.
  • No oxygen (Avoid producing ethanoic acid).

N.B: Optimum temperature and pH vary between enzymes.

72
Q

What is atom economy?

A

A measure of the amount of reactants that end up as useful products.

73
Q

What is precision.

A

Precision is what we call repeatability.

It’s a measure of the spread of the measured values. A large spread leads to greater uncertainty.

74
Q

How are chemical accidents prevented?

A

By choosing substances that will minimise the risk of such accidents.

75
Q

What are alkanes?

A

A group of hydrocarbons where the carbon atoms are joined by single carbon-carbon bonds. They are saturated hydrocarbons for this reason.

76
Q

Chemists can also use Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) - how is this different and what are the advantages of using it?

A

TLC uses a stationary phase of a thin layer of absorbent material, such as silica gel. This is supported on a flat, unreactive surface, such as a glass plate.

Advantages

  • Faster runs.
  • More even movement of the mobile phase through the stationary phase.
  • A choice of different absorbencies for the stationary phase.

This is why TLC usually produces better separations for a wider range of substances.

77
Q

What are the optimum conditions for biotechnology?

A
  • Temperature between 25-37oC.
  • Optimum pH level should remain constant.

This prevents the denaturing of enzymes.

78
Q

State examples of fine chemicals (Chemicals produced on a small scale).

A
  • Drugs.
  • Food additives.
  • Fragrances.
79
Q

Provide the names and formulas for the first 4 alkanes.

A
  • Methane - CH4.
  • Ethane - C2H6.
  • Propane - C3H8.
  • Butane - C4H10.
80
Q

What are the 4 stages of Gas Chromatography?

A
  1. Dissolve your sample into a solvent, which is injected into one end of the glass column (The column is actually wound into a coil in most cases so that it fits into the oven).
  2. An unreactive gas - usually nitrogen - carries the sample through the column.
  3. Different substances in the sample travel through the column at different speeds due to their different solubilities, and so become separated from each other.
  4. The separated substances leave the column one after the other. As they leave, they are detected by a detector.
81
Q

What is accuracy?

A

How close a result is to its true value.

82
Q

What are the typical reactor conditions in The Haber Process?

A
  • Iron catalyst.
  • 200 atmospheres pressure.
  • 450oC temperature.
83
Q

In Gas Chromatography, what is the mobile phase?

A

The carrier gas - usually nitrogen.

84
Q

When interpreting titration results, you may be asked to use relative formula masses. How would you do this?

e.g: A titration is carried out and 35cm3 of sulfuric acid of concentration 60g/dm3 neutralises 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide. Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide.

To save you having to look it up, I will give the RFM’s:

  • H2SO4 - 98.
  • NaOH - 40.
A

1) Work out the RFM’s of the acid and alkali.
2) Write down the equation. This allows you to calculate the mass of acid which reacts with the mass of alkali.
3) Work out the mass of the acid (Known concentration) used in the titration using your rearranged equation Mass = Concentration * Volume.
4) Work out the mass of alkali (Unknown) used in the reaction.
5) Work out the concentration using your equation for concentration - if you need a reminder, it’s Concentration = Mass/Volume.

Solution to example

1) H2SO4 = 2+32+(4*16) = 98.

NaOH = 23+16+1 = 40.

2) H2SO4 + 2NaOH –> Na2SO4 + 2H2O.
3) Mass = Concentration * Volume.

60g/dm3 * (35cm3/1000)

=2.1g.

4) If 98g of sulfuric acid reacts with 80g of sodium hydroxide, then 2.1g reacts with 2.1/98 * 80g = 1.7g of sodium hydroxide.
5) Concentration = Mass/Volume.
1. 7/(25cm3/1000)

=68g/dm3.

85
Q

What is a chromatogram? How are they used?

A

A chromatogram is what’s formed when the chemicals come out of solution and bind to the stationary phase.

They are compared to standard reference materials (Other chromatograms) of known substances to identify the different chemicals.

86
Q

What are alkenes?

A

Another group of hydrocarbons that have reactive C=C double bonds. They’re described as unsaturated.

87
Q

Name some mistakes that could occur when gathering results during an experiment.

A

Any of the following:

  • Misreading a scale.
  • Forgetting to fill up a burette to the correct level.
  • Taking a thermometer out of the solution to read the scale.
  • Any other acceptable answer.
88
Q

Explain the method to achieve a standard solution.

Example to try:

How would I make 250cm3 of standard solution with a concentration of 100g/dm3?

A

N.B: You are required to use the equation Concentration (g/dm3) = Mass (g) / Volume (dm3).

  1. Find out the mass you need to measure.
  2. Measure out (the mass) 25g of the solid sample in a beaker.
  3. Fill the beaker with enough distilled water to dissolve the solid - but don’t go over the volume you want yet.
  4. Use a short-stem funnel and transfer the contents of the beaker into a volumetric flask. Wash the funnel and beaker with distilled water, and pour the washings into the flask.
  5. Place the flask on a level surface, and fill until the solution reaches (the volume) 250cm3.
  6. Invert the flask to mix the contents and ensure an even concentration throughout.

You should be given the volume/mass, but if not default to 5g and 100cm3, as from the revision guide.

89
Q

What is the standard reaction for producing esters.

A

Carboxylic acid + Alcohol –> Ester + Water.

This reaction is carried out in the presence of a strong acid catalyst.

90
Q

What does the sustainability of a chemical process depend on?

A
  • The atom economy.
  • The use of renewable feedstocks.
  • Energy inputs and outputs.
  • Health and safety risks.
  • Waste prevention.
  • Social, economic and environmental effects/impacts.
91
Q

Give two examples of naturally occuring esters.

A
  • Fats (Esters of glycerol and fatty acids).
  • Oils.
92
Q

__________ analysis is any method used to identify the chemicals in a substance.

A

Qualitative analysis is any method used to identify the chemicals in a substance.

93
Q

What are the two types of solvent?

A
  • Aqueous - Water based.
  • Non-aqueous - Made from organic liquids such as alkanes.
94
Q

State 3 regulations the government controls.

A
  • Chemical processes.
  • Storage of chemicals.
  • Transporation of chemicals.

Regulated by the Health and Safety Executive.

95
Q

What is the standard reaction for alcohols reacting with oxygen?

A

N.B: Alcohols burn in air because of the presence of a hydrocarbon chain (Combustion).

Alcohol + Oxygen –> Water + Carbon dioxide.

N.B: You will be required to balance this.

GCSE OCR Chemistry (11 decks)

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