C3: World Sociology Flashcards
Global Inequalities
Refers to the uneven distribution of resources such as money and power within the world and how opportunities related to education, employment and health are also skewed
The Champagne glass world
A visual way of representing global inequalities in income distribution
Income
Refers to an amount of money earned in a certain period
Wealth
Refers to the value of money and other assets owned (e.g. land, property, stocks and shares)
Poverty
A condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs - including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information
Majority world
Refers to the ‘Third World’ and to the fact that more than two-thirds of the world’s population live there. As geographically most of these countries are in the south some people also use the term ‘Global South’
Minority world
Refers to the rich ‘First World’ where a minority of the world’s population live. As geographically most of these countries are in the north some people also use the term ‘Global North’.
Development
The progress a society is making in improving the quality of life for humans i.e. ‘good change’
Economic development
Measuring development by focusing on economic growth and the wealth of nations
GDP
Measures the economic output of a country by calculating the sum value of all the goods and services produced for money in the economy
GDP per capita
The Gross Domestic Product of a country divided by the number of people living there
Western societies
Europe, The Americas, Australia and New Zealand
GNP
Calculated in the same way as GDP, except the measure includes wealth generated by a population out of activities overseas; thus considering international trade and factories based in other countries
GINI Index
A measure of income inequality within a given society with higher values (maximum of 100) indicating more inequality
Human development
Is about expanding the richness of human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live. Includes social aspects of development including education, health and the rights of women
Composite measures of development
A measure of development that combines different statistical indicators (e.g. the Human Development Index).
Human Development Index
A composite measure of development calculated by the United Nations by combining statistics on life expectancy, education and wealth.
United Nations
An international political organisation set up after World War Two to promote peace, human rights and development
Sustainable development
Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
Prosperity
Often synonymous with wealth but also includes others factors which can be independent of wealth to varying degrees, such as happiness and health
Ecological footprint
It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population consumes, and to assimilate associated waste.
Global hectare
The unit of measurement for ecological footprints 1 = 10,000 square metres
Climate change
Change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels
Precautionary principle
The idea that when human health and the environment are significantly at risk it is better to adopt a cautious approach
Buddhist Economics
A perspective associated with the work of Ernst Schumacher. It is critical of the environmental and social costs of western consumerism. For Schumacher the key to well-being is not consumption but meaningful work that allows human beings to be creative
Consumerism
The pressure that society puts on individuals to purchase goods and service for money in ever increasing amounts
Happy Planet Index
A composite measure of development which takes account of life expectancy, self-reports of happiness and ecological footprints
Millennium Development Goals
Development targets set in 2000 by the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals
These 17 aspirational goals have replaced the Millennium Development Goals from 2016
Modernisation Theory
Dominant development theory of the 1960s based on the work of Walt Rostow. In a nutshell: Development means becoming more like us
Traditional society
Rostow’s first stage of development: It is based on subsistence farming, limited wealth, and traditional values hold back change
Pre-conditions for take-off
Rostow’s second stage of development. There will be new technologies to modernise agriculture and these provide the fuel for further development
Take off
Rostow’s third stage of development. A new class of ‘entrepreneurs’ emerges which is willing to take risks in investing in business
Drive to maturity
Rostow’s fourth stage of development. Investment in education, health and social services lead to rising living standards
The age of mass consumption
Rostow’s final stage of development. The society achieves the kind of levels the USA had reached by the 1960s: high mass consumption; high standards of living for most of the population
Subsistence agriculture
Is a system whereby crops and livestock are produced for consumption by the family rather than for sale in the market.
Ascribed status
Where your position in society is fixed at birth with jobs passed down family lines
Collectivism
The notion that members of the family/tribal unit put the interests of the group before self-interest
Fatalism
An attitude whereby the holder believes that there is nothing they can do about their circumstances
Cottage industry
A mode of production typical of pre-industrial societies, where the home was the main focus for the manufacture of goods needed in society
Entrepreneurship
Is the process of starting a business or other organisation
Individualism
The notion that individual self-interest should come before the interests of the group
Industrialisation
The process whereby a society moves from a predominantly agricultural base to one where the economy is dominated by manufacturing (based on mechanised mass production)
Internal cultural barriers
Ideas and beliefs which can make less developed countries resistant to social change and progress (Talcott Parsons).
Cultural catalysts
Investments of foreign aid used to bring about cultural changes in less developed countries by creating institutions which transmit modern norms and values, for example education.
Internal economic barriers
These are the things that prevent poorer countries from developing their economy. For example a lack of technology and an absence of entrepreneurs.
Economic catalysts
Investments of foreign aid or investments by Transnational Corporations that can help poorer countries overcome their economic barriers.
Cycle of poverty
Where poorer countries are never able to produce their goods cheaply or efficiently enough to generate wealth. Also known as a ‘poverty trap’ (Jeffrey Sachs)
Ethnocentrism
Looking at an issue from the view-point of a particular cultural background and therefore obtaining a biased opinion of it
Neoliberalism
A theory which takes the view that the free market is the best way of organising and developing societies; against government intervention in society. This approach is also known as the ‘new right’. In a nutshell: (free) trade not aid
Free trade
Trade across national boundaries without interference from the respective governments. It is the opposite of economic protectionism
Market
Any place where buyers and sellers meet to trade products
Free market
An economic system in which government interference is minimised and all activity is governed only by laws of supply and demand (market forces)
The laws of supply and demand
A theory explaining the interaction between the availability of a product and the desire for that product amongst consumers. Generally, if there is a low availability and a high desire, the price will be high. In contrast, the greater the availability and the lower the desire, the lower the price will be
Market price
The amount customers are charged for depending on demand,(the amount of a product customers are prepared to buy), and supply, (the availability of a product)
The invisible hand
A metaphor used by Adam Smith to describe unintended social benefits resulting from individuals pursuing their own self interests
‘Trickle down economics’
The Neoliberal idea that economic benefits provided to businesses and upper income level earners will help society as a whole. In theory their extra wealth will help to grow the economy and create jobs
Economic protectionism
A term used to describe economic policies such as tariffs, quotas and subsidies which aim to shelter domestic companies from foreign competition. It is the opposite of free trade
Tariffs
Taxes on imports to protect a country’s own industries.
Quotas
Where the government puts strict limits on the number of foreign goods it allows to be imported into the country
Subsidies
Payments given by governments to companies in their own country to make them more competitive in the global market
Trade Liberalisation
The process of removing barriers to free trade such as tariffs, quotas and subsidies
‘Red Tape’
This refers to state regulations on businesses
Structural Adjustment Plans (SAPs)
Refers to the conditions attached to loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. The conditions usually focus on things like trade liberalisation, privatisation and deregulation of businesses
The ‘Washington consensus’
This is a phrase used to describe the influence of Neo-Liberalism on the World Bank and IMF (both of these institutions have their headquarters in Washington DC)
Infant industry argument
The argument originally made by Alexander Hamilton that the governments of economically less developed nations need to protect and nurture their young industries against superior foreign competitors until they grow up
Dependency Theory
This perspective maintains that global poverty and affluence are intimately connected. Both have been created by the systematic and total exploitation of the periphery nations by the core. In a nutshell: Development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin
Core/Periphery Model
A view of the global economy which characterises divisions between a strong, stable core and a weak, vulnerable surround to that core
Metropolis nations
Term used by Dependency theorists to describe the most economically developed countries. Also known as ‘core nations’
Satellite nations
Term used by dependency theorists to describe countries in the developing world (also known as ‘periphery nations’). The terms indicate their dependence on the ‘core nations’
Primary economic activity
This is the sector of an economy making direct use of natural resources. This includes agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining. This sector is usually most important in less developed countries, and typically less important in industrial countries
Secondary sector
This is the sector of an economy producing manufactured goods
Tertiary sector
This is the service sector of an economy
‘Backwash effect’
Where resources and wealth are sucked out of the periphery and into the core
Underdevelopment
Term used by dependency theorists (e.g. Frank) to describe the process whereby the core capitalist countries have distorted and manipulated the progress of less-developed countries to their own advantage
Mercantile capitalism
The first phase of exploitation according to Frank. During this time a number of informal trade networks were established, through which European capitalists generated massive profits
Colonialism
A world system in which European countries directly controlled much of Asia, Africa and Latin America
‘Divide and rule’
The main tactic used by the colonial powers, setting different elements within the colonised countries against each other. The drawing up of ‘national’ boundaries by the colonial powers, without heed to history, culture or language aided this policy
Neo-colonialism
Modern forms of exploitation of poorer societies by rich societies, which according to Dependency Theorists are usually dressed up as beneficial e.g. aid, trade and TNC investment
The scramble for Africa
A term used to describe the colonisation of Africa in the 19th C. when European rulers suddenly decided to take over Africa. Africa’s natural resources were used to fuel industrialisation in Europe
Cash crops
Crops grown to sell rather than to use
The Slave Triangle
A three-legged journey (Europe, Africa, the Americas) undertaken by slave traders
Eugenics
The pseudo-science claiming to improve the genetic features of human populations through selective breeding and sterilization, based on the idea that it is possible to distinguish between superior and inferior elements of society
The Rwandan Genocide
A mass slaughter of Tutsi and moderate Hutu in Rwanda by members of the Hutu majority. During the approximate 100-day period from April 7, 1994, to mid-July, an estimated 500,000–1,000,000 Rwandans were killed
The resource curse
The paradox that countries and regions with an abundance of natural resources tend to have less economic growth and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer natural resources e.g. The Democratic Republic of Congo
Third World debt crisis
Refers to the fact that most developing countries have very large debts, and the amount of money they owe is quickly increasing. Trying to pay off the debt (debt service) has become a serious problem for these countries, and it causes great hardship for their people
World Systems Theory
This theory is associated with the work of Immanuel Wallerstein from the early 1970s onwards and developed from Dependency theory, sharing with it a basis in Marxism
Modern world system
A term used in World Systems Theory to describe the global economy. This comprises a hierarchy of countries from the core (developed), through the semi-periphery (countries such as Brazil and South Africa, with some advanced urban sectors), to the periphery (the least developed)
The semi-periphery
Countries which occupy a space somewhere between the core and the periphery. Such countries may aspire to core membership or they may be former members of the core whose economic development has stalled or declined
Capitalism
An economy where most of the production of goods and services is initiated & undertaken by private companies who aim to generate profit from this activity. Most work is performed by individuals who work for someone else in return for money
