C2 - The Psychological Changes of Ageing Flashcards
Effects on confidence and self-esteem
Confidence and self-esteem are not fixed and people experience rises and falls in both during their lifespan. An individual‘s confidence and self-esteem may increase with older age, as they feel that their life is more settled and they may well have achieved many of their goals. For example, they may have reached a certain level in their job, own their house, and have raised a family – maybe they have grandchildren, and are enjoying a fulfilling retirement. Conversely, older age can mean loss of confidence as the physical effects of ageing make daily tasks difficult or impossible. Older people can feel marginalised by a society that places great emphasis on material possessions and position in life. If an older person has had a high status job, they may feel less worthy now they no longer have that function. For some older people, the only income may be their state pension and they may be struggling to cope financially.
Effects of social change
How roles change
The majority of older people enjoy effective social networks, with only one person in five experiencing a degree of isolation. For many people retirement provides more opportunity for contact with grandchildren and other relatives. Older people are more likely to vote than any other age group, suggesting involvement in politics and community issues. Conversely, an individual may have viewed themselves as the ‘head of the family’, the provider and the decision maker, and find it difficult to adjust to their children maturing and taking over many of these functions.
Death of a partner
Loss, grief and bereavement can result in a range of changes, including a change of status and result in anxiety and depression. The death of a spouse/partner will bring grief but also a sense of loss which impacts on a person’s sense of safety and security. When a partner dies, there is also a loss of long-term relationships is particularly difficult as people may have a self-concept as a couple and have lost a sense of who they are as an individual. Being alone will impact negatively on self-image and self-esteem which may result in not wanting to live on alone.
Death of friends
Losing friends is a source of grief and stress and losing social support networks can lead to a sense of isolation and of not being useful. It can also bring a sense of one’s own mortality which can lead to depression.
Increase in leisure time
For many people, retirement provides freedom. Retired people may be seen as ‘time rich’ and free from work stress. But, for some people, retirement may result in losses of income, of purpose, of interest in life and contact with work colleagues. More free time may, however, enable many older people to engage in physical leisure activities such as walking and activity holidays. Gardening is very popular among people aged 50-70. Free time may enable many older people to engage in enjoyable social and mental activities such as taking new college courses, developing ICT skills or other new hobbies. National statistics online reported that 51% of people between 60-69 participated in some form of learning.
Financial concerns
Some people over the age of 65 own their own property, have paid their mortgage in full and have sufficient income to live comfortably in their old age. However, there are many who rent, either local authority or privately owned property. For some, paying the rent (including rising rents) or maintaining their own property will cause financial concerns. Some people may have a private pension but others may only have a state pension. Paying household bills, especially with rising costs for heating and other utilities, can be a source of stress for many older people.
Effects of culture, religion and beliefs
Some people can maintain a happy and positive outlook on life despite having serious physical health problems. Other people may appear to be depressed or withdrawn despite being relatively fortunate in terms of physical health. The way in which people react to changes in later life depends on their attitudes and beliefs, which are influenced by social issues such as culture and religion.
Traditionally, family members have been responsible for caring for older people, providing care within an extended family environment. However, in contemporary society, care of older people is more often provided by the welfare state, or private/voluntary organisations. Sheltered housing facilities enable older people to keep a sense of independence while providing individuals with the care and supervision necessary to stay safe. While care of older people in Britain often focuses on the importance of empowerment and independence, some Asian cultures place greater emphasis on respect and family care for older people. Older people’s views of death is also based on the values of their culture. In Britain, it is common to view death as a loss, something to be feared, as opposed to a tranquil and natural transition.
Although the equality act 2010 is intended to prevent ageism in society, it is a common form of discrimination in Britain, and negative stereotypes about older people are often portrayed. This type of discrimination can have a negative impact on the care and wellbeing of older people.
Social disengagement theory
Disengagement means to withdraw from involvement. In 1961, psychologists Cumming & Henry proposed that older people naturally withdraw from social involvement as they get older. They concluded that older people have restricted opportunities to interact with others. Cumming (1963) further argued that older people experience reduced social contact and become increasingly ’individual’ and less concerned with others’ expectations. She concluded that it is appropriate and healthy behaviour and that disengagement is a natural part of ageing.
The theory of disengagement was widely accepted in the past. For example, Bromley (1974) argued that “although some individuals fight the process all the way, disengagement of some sort is bound to come, simply because old people have neither the physical nor the mental resources they had when they were young”.
However, there is little statistical evidence to support this view. The majority of older people remain socially active and involved with family and friends. Many older people become even more involved with close family as they age. It may be that many older people choose to spend their time with people they feel close to, rather than seeking to make new friends. If people only interact with close friends, does this mean that they are disengaged?
In 1966, Bromley argued that older people needed to disengage but remain ‘active’ in order to prevent disengagement from going too far. He argued that providing facilities for older people was not enough and that they should be shown how to use them and encouraged not to have negative attitudes or fix habits. Bromley felt that it was important to remain mentally active, maintain an interest in life and enjoy the company of others.
While many researchers today do not agree with the disengagement theory, it is important to remember that when Cumming & Henry first proposed this theory in 1961 there was no internet, no mobile phones or texting. Many older people had no access to a car and many would not even have had a phone in their home. Technology helps all the people to keep in contact with a wider circle of family and friends.
Activity theory
Activity theory was proposed as an explanation to ageing by Havighurst in the 1960s. He is ill health study of older people showed that, rather than an inevitable decline in interest in life and isolation, older people tend to adjust to the ageing process. His theory is based on the assumption that social and psychological needs of older people remain the same.
He recognised that this may involve adjusting to changes in health and/or mobility but theorised that older peoples’ needs can be satisfied by taking on new roles following retirement such as charity work, joining social groups or learning a new skill. Research supports this theory. Many older people look forward to retirement, viewing this part of their lifespan as an opportunity to pursue new hobbies and interests and to make new friends. When people remain physically and socially active, their overall satisfaction and wellbeing is increased. This is important for reducing the risk of illness and increasing longevity.
One theory is that older people need to engage in telling their life story, reminiscing/reviewing their life to help create self-esteem and confidence. Coleman (1994) argued that some types of reminiscence therapy can be useful for helping individuals cope with the effects of ageing, but that there are wide differences in individual needs.
