C1700-C1900 Flashcards
What was enlightenment
A movement in Europe during the 18th century that encouraged people to think for themselves and that traditional authorities (the church) should not be able to control every day life
What was spontaneous generation
Early 18th century
An alternative to the theory of the four humours that has now been discarded
Improvements in the quality of microscopes meant that scientists could now see microbes present on decaying matter however many people believe that these microbes were a product of decay rather than the cause of it
Louis Pasteur and the germ theory
1860 - Louis Pasteur a French scientist was able to observe unwanted microbes in wine and vinegar which turned both liquids bad
He published the results of his experiments in 1861
He theorised that spontaneous generation was wrong and that it was something in the air that caused decay
He proved that microbes can be killed by heating them
He believed that microbes might also be causing human disease but he did not published this germ theory of infection until 1878
Pasteur’s influence in Britain
To begin with it had to impact because it wasn’t promoted by Dr Henry Bastian who was one of the most powerful doctors in the country who supported the theory of spontaneous generation
Joseph lister did go onto link Pasteur’s germ theory to infection problems in his surgical patients. He was often overlooked tho because he could not prove his theory
John Tyndall promoted his ideas and theorised that dust particles carried the germs that caused disease - however he wasn’t a doctor, he was a physicist and so he was often overlooked
Robert Koch’s work on microbes
Robert Koch successfully identifies that different germs caused many common diseases
He discovered that bacteria caused tuberculosis in 1882
He published his ideas on the methods that could be used to identify disease-causing microbes
1883 - discovered cholera and 1884 he discovered it was spread in water supplies whilst he was in India
He made it easier for other scientists to study bacteria by developing a way to grow them, using agar jelly in a Petri dish and also developed a method for staining them with industrial dyes so that they’re easier to see
1905 he received a nobel prize for medicine
Kochs influence in Britain
Doctors now studied the disease itself rather than the symptoms - they recognised that the microbes needed to be removed as that is what caused the symptoms
In 1883 the microbes that cause diphtheria was found - by studying the microbe scientists discovered that it produced a poison that stayed in the throat and caused the painful symptoms
Since the microbe has been identified doctors were able to seek ways of attacking it directly rather than just treated the symptoms
The British government did not listen to his discoveries in the short term
Hospitals in the 18th century
1700 only 5 hospitals in the country
New ones began to appear funded by wealthy people
Doctors offered services for free to practice their skills
Hospitals were more about treatment than hospitality
The “deserving poor” were treated there and rich people would rather be treated at home
Gave poor access to medical treatment for the first time
Soon became less sanitary as they became less strict about turning away infectious patients
Mid 19th century there were a lot more hospitals but the conditions were very poor
Florence nightingale
1854 she was sent to Crimea with 38 other nurses to treat wounded soldiers in struggling hospitals
Changes she made to the care of soldiers:
-she demanded 300 scrubbing bushes to get rid of any dirt near the patients being treated
-nurses were organised to treat nearly 2000 wounded soldiers
-clean bedding and food meals were provided
Her efforts within 6 months dropped the mortality rates from 40% to 2%
When she returned to Britain in 1856 she was a national hero - giving her credibility to make changes to hospitals in Britain too
Hospitals by 1900
Nightingale encourages hospitals to follow a pavilion plan, this meant they were built with improved ventilation, more windows, larger rooms and separate isolation wards
She also established a nursing school in London in 1860
Now hospitals had many different wards to split up infectious patients from those needing surgery
Cleanliness was now very important and hospitals first focused on cleaning up germs using antiseptics - by 1900 they focused on preventing the germs from getting in to begin with
Doctors were a common sight and trained nurses lived in nearby houses provided for them
Problems regarding treatment in the 18th century
Bleeding - operations would have to be carried out extremely quickly
Pain - without and anaesthetic there was no way of preventing the excruciating pain
Infection - operations were carried out in bad conditions - often at home
The development of the anaesthetic
Laughing gas was originally used however it was extremely flammable, often caused irritation and vomiting
James Simpson gathered a group of friends and they inhaled vapours of various chemicals
After sniffing chloroform they all passed out
However it was later discovered that chloroform had some negative side effects
- the dosage had to be watched and controlled to prevent overdose and death
- the chemical sometimes affected the heart
It was used in surgery
In 1853 it was used by queen victoria during the birth of her son
Doctors could now attempt lengthier more complex operations however this caused infection and bleeding to become an even bigger problem
The development of aseptic surgery
Joseph lister was an English surgeon
He used to works of pasture to conclude that microbes were what caused flesh to rot
He then started to look for a chemical that would clear bacteria from wounds
He was aware of the use of carbolic acid in sewage treatments
In 1865 he operated on a patient with a broken leg and added a bandage soaked in carbolic acid - the wound healed cleanly
He started to spray carbolic acid in the air during operations
Why did aseptic surgery not catch on quickly
News of listers success spread more quickly than Pasteur’s germ theory meaning that many scientists didn’t understand the logic behind the use of carbolic acid and so weren’t willing to use the carbolic spray
Carbolic acid dried out the skin and left an odd smell which put surgeons off using it
Lister focused of encouraging people to use the spray rather than proving his theory
Impact of aseptic and antiseptic surgery
Surgeons finally understood it was their duty to perform safe surgery
By 1900, instruments were steam cleaned, operating theatres were scrubbed spotless, rubber gloves and surgical gowns were introduced and surgeons used face masks during operations
Opposition to antiseptics and anaesthetics
Before the introduction of carbolic acid the death rate increased because longer surgeries were taking place. People didn’t trust anaesthetics
Victorian’s believed that pain relief was interfering with god’s plan
Some doctors believed patients were more likely to die if they were unconscious during the operation
It took a long time for doctors to accept that germs caused infection