C - Method Lecture 1 - Content Analysis Flashcards
Definition: Content Analysis
research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use
Basis Principles of Content Analysis
- Embedding of the material within the communicative context
- Systematic, rule-bound procedure
- Categories are in the center of the analysis
- Object reference instead of formal techniques
- Quality criteria
(In comparison to other Methods,) Content Analysis …
… is an unobtrusive technique.
… can handle unstructured matter as data.
… is context sensitive.
… can cope with large volumes of data.
Distinguishing different types of CA
Which types are there?
Qualitative Content Analysis
Quantitative Content Analysis
(Mixed Methods)
Distinguishing different types of CA
Qualitative Content Analysis
Definition:
An approach of empirical, method- logical, controlled analysis of texts within their context of communication, following content analytical rules and step by step models, without rash quantification
Focus on:
… qualitative elements of an area that are itemized and interpreted
Distinguishing different types of CA
Quantitative Content Analysis
Definition:
• A technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages
• A research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication
Focus on:
… quantities, relations between quantities, mathematical operations
Distinguishing different types of CA
Mixed Methods
Integration/Combination/Mixed-Methods
- Starting from the methodological basis of Quantitative Content Analysis
- Following content-analytical rules in order to conceptualize the process of assigning categories to text passages as a qualitative-interpretive act
Framework of the content analysis
Text
- Most data for content analysis are not intended to be analyzed to answer specific research questions
- These texts are meant to be read, interpreted and understood by people other than the analyst
- Interview results have to be read in the context of possible self-interests as interviewees answer
questions differently when they know how the research findings could affect them
Framework of the content analysis
Theory-oriented differentiation of the problem
- Analysis follows a precise and theoretically based issue of substance
- Concept of theoretical orientation, as among those who favor the qualitative approach there is a
negative attitude towards theory, which repeatedly asserts itself. - Focus of analysis must be defined precisely in advance, viewed within the context of current research on the topic, and as a rule divided into sub-issues
Example:
- Previous research explored the intrapersonal processes thought to be responsible for boycott participation: Klein, Smith, and John 2004; Sen, Gurhan-Canli, and Morwitz 2001
- This study aims to provide evidence for the motivational determinants investigated in the studies listed above. Based on that, the study explores further possible drivers of boycott behavior.
Framework of the content analysis
Research questions
- Research questions are the targets of the analyst’s inferences from available texts
- Efficiency: When motivated by specific questions, analysts can proceed more
expeditiously from sampling relevant texts to answering given questions - Empirical Grounding: All answers to research questions entail truth claims that could be supported, if not by direct observations then at least by plausible argumentation from related observations
Example:
General research question:
-> What drives boycott participation?
Specific questions:
-> Which intrapersonal processes (promoters/inhibitors) leading to boycott participation are
expressed by the authors of the postings?
Framework of the content analysis
Context
- Specifies the world in which texts can be related to the analyst’s research questions (e.g. world of politicians, journalists, etc. vs.
world of political analysts, communication researcher etc.) - Embraces all the knowledge that the analyst applies to given texts
(scientific theories, plausibly argued propositions, empirical evidence, grounded intuitions, or knowledge of reading habits)
Framework of the content analysis
Analytical Constructs
- Constructs operationalize what the content analyst knows, suspects or assumes
about the context and represents this network in computable forms in order to draw inferences - Correlations measure the extend of a linear relationship between variables (e.g. rate of recorded speech disturbances and anxiety)
- Constructs render knowledge of the context portable to other content analyses of similar contexts
- Constructs function as testable mini-theories of a context, with the provision that they are
computable on the coded features of available texts - Purpose of constructs: Ensure that texts are processed in reference to what is known about their use
Framework of the content analysis
Which kinds of inferences are there?
Deduction
Induction
Abduction
Framework of the content analysis
Deduction
Description:
- Deductive inferences are implied in their premises.
- Inference is logically conclusive.
-> Proceeding from generalization to particulars
Example:
If all humans speak a language, then John, being human, must speak one as well.
Framework of the content analysis
Induction
Description:
- Inductive inferences are generalizations to similar kinds.
- Inference is not logically conclusive, but has a certain probability of being correct.
-> Proceeding from particulars to generalizations
Example:
All of my neighbors speak English, so all humans speak English too.
Framework of the content analysis
Abduction
Description:
- Abductive inferences proceed across logically distinct domains.
- Abduction starts with a body of data, e.g. facts, observations, givens ( text)
- No other hypothesis can explain the data as well as the chosen one does
-> Proceeding from particulars of one kind to particulars of another kind
Example:
Linguistic competence and age: Neither implies each other. However, if one has practical experience with infant’s language acquisition, one might be able to infer children’s age from the sounds they make or from the vocabulary they use.
Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods-Approach
2 Study Design
Integrated Design
Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods-Approach
2 Study Design
Preliminary Study Model:
- Description: Qualitative study as preliminary study
- Aim: Qualitative study for development of hypotheses
Triangulation Model:
- Description: Integration of two main studies
- Aim: Independence of methods; validation of results
Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods-Approach
Integrated Design
Elaboration Model:
- Description: Additional qualitative interpretation of quantitative data
- Aim: Deeper understanding of results
Generalization Model:
- Description: Inductive identification of relevant features with qualitative analyses and transformation in categorical data that is statistically evaluated
- Aim: Theory development and generalization
Stages of the Analysing Process
1) Material Sourcing
- > collecting material
2) Transcription
- > bringing materials into written form
3) Unitization
- > Dividing material into units of coding and analysis
4) Categorization
- > developing a category scheme (preliminary coding)
5) Coding
- > assigning codes to units (final coding)
Final output:
Theory (categories)
-> basis for the quantitative analysis
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 1: Material Sourcing
- Material on which the analysis is to be based must be defined exactly
- Sampling: In many cases a selection from a larger volume of material must be made.
- Selected samples are taken according to considerations of economy and representativeness.
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 2: Transcription
- In all other cases: Data collection and transcription require rigor and sophistication and should be reported in detail
- Note: When the data are readily available (e.g., graphical material or text documents) or when verbal material already exists in written form (e.g., responses in an online-questionnaire or electronically logged communication) the first two stages do not apply
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 3: Unitization
- sampling units
- recording/coding units
- context units
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 4: Categorization
Basic Forms of interpretation
Summary
Explication
Structuring
Inductive Category Formation + Deductive Category Assignment
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 4: Categorization
Basic Forms of interpretation
Summary
Reducing the material in such a way that the essential contents remain.
Creating through abstraction a comprehensive overview of the base material which is nevertheless still an image of it
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 4: Categorization
Basic Forms of interpretation
Explication
Providing additional material on individual doubtful text components (terms, sentences…) to increasing understanding, explaining, interpreting the particular passage of text.
Stages of the Analysing Process
Stage 4: Categorization
Basic Forms of interpretation
Structuring
Filtering out particular aspects of the material, to give a cross- section through the material according to pre-determined ordering criteria, or to assess the material according to certain criteria.
Basic Techniques for Quantitative Analysis
Frequency Analysis
Valence and Intensity Analysis
Contingency Analysis
Basic Techniques for Quantitative Analysis
Frequency Analysis
- Counting certain elements in the material and compare them in their frequency with the occurrence of other elements
- Comprehensive category systems (“dictionaries”): Supposed to include all aspects of a text and form the basis for a computer count of language materia
Basic Techniques for Quantitative Analysis
Valence and Intensity Analysis
• Assigning a value to certain textual components on an assessment scale of two or more gradations
Examples:
- Symbol Analysis
- Evaluative assertion analysis
- Value Analysis
Basic Techniques for Quantitative Analysis
Contingency Analysis
• Assessing whether particular text elements (e.g. central concepts) are contingent, i.e. they
- occur with particular frequency in the same context, or
- are connected with one another in any way in the text
Examples:
- Discourse analysis
- Semantic field analysis
Inter-Coder Reliability
Percentage of Agreement
Identical codings divided by all codings
Overlap = Identical codings / all codings
Inter-Coder reliability
Cohen’s Kappa
- Measure of the observed proportion of agreement that is greater than would be expected by chance
- Takes into account the agreement occurring by chance
- > more robust measure than simple percentage of agreement
- Cohen‘s kappa is a rather conservative coefficient
- Only for two coders
