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A2 philosophy and ethics > C grade knowledge > Flashcards

C grade knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

the via negativa (Apophatic way);

A
  1. Pseudo Dionysus
  2. We cannot talk about God in a positive way because…
  3. It is impossible for us to know an immortal, incorporeal, eternal God
  4. So we can only describe God in terms of what he is not.
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2
Q

The verification principle

A
  1. A. J. Ayer and Vienna Circle
  2. Language is only meaningful if it can be verified
  3. If we can point to something. If language signifies something. We can point to a pen, but not to God
  4. Therefore the word God is meaningless
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3
Q

The falsification principle

A
  1. Karl Popper and Anthony Flew
  2. A statement can’t be true unless we know what could prove it false.
  3. There are no black swans – we can’t prove this without looking in every corner of the universe at the same time.
  4. Flew – how does an invisible gardener differ from an imaginary gardner or no gardener at all.
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4
Q

Symbol

A
  1. Paul Tillich
  2. Differ from signs
  3. Symbols ‘participate in’ the thing they represent.
  4. Like the American flag is a symbol of the USA and it participates in the meaning of the USA – a sign could be replaced with anything (I can’t replace a crucifix with a pen).
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5
Q

Analogy

A
  1. Aquinas
  2. Univocally and equivocally
  3. Proportion (size) a dog might be clever for a dog, but not for a human; a human might be loving but that doesn’t mean the same thing for God.
  4. Attribution (cause) God is ‘living’ because he is the cause of life/ a cake is sickly because it makes us sick
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6
Q

Myth

A
  1. Bultmann – what is important in the Gospels is the Kerygma (message)
  2. It is not that the Gospels are a myth but that the history isn’t the important bit.
  3. John Hick -Myths show the deeper meaning
  4. John Hick wrote – The myth of God incarnate.
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7
Q

Ludwig Wittgenstein

A
  1. Words don’t always point to something (e.g. Ow!)
  2. Words are like tools that do a job.
  3. Words get their meaning from the activity or language game
  4. Religious language has a meaning within religious language games
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8
Q

The problem of the attributes of God

A
  1. God is meant to be Eternal, omniscient omnipotent, and omnibenevolent.
  2. How can evil things happen?
  3. Can we have free will?
  4. Is it fair that God can punish us?
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9
Q

Boethius

A
  1. In conversation with lady philosophy
  2. How can God punish us justly if he knows what we are going to do?
  3. Answer - God is eternal and so stands outside time.
  4. Imagine looking at a road from a distance – the man on the road can only see a small part of it, but you can see more.
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10
Q

Stephen Fry’s version of the problem of evil from conversation on tv

A
  1. God requires is to worship him.
  2. God created a world with evil in it.
  3. God is good
  4. There is a contradiction between 1+2 and 3.
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11
Q

Richard Dawkins

A
  1. God tells Abraham to sacrifice his son
  2. This is clearly bad
  3. God is not a role model (i.e. God is not good)
  4. The Bible does not give rules to follow
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12
Q

The Euthyphro dilemma

A

Either

  1. Goodness is liked by the god(s) because it is good [Fry and Dawkins]

or

  1. Goodness is goodness because it is liked by the god(s) [Religious idea]
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13
Q

Soren Kierkegaard

A
  1. Faith is the most important thing we need in life
    1. Faith = trust in everything that is beyond our control
  2. Abraham, by following God’s most horrible orders displays great faith.
  3. For this display, God’s orders had to be most horrible.

The purpose of this story is to understand the nature of Faith

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14
Q

Plato (Republic - Tripartite soul)

A
  1. Rational, Spirited, Appetitive
  2. Analogy with chariot – the driver, white horse, black horse.
  3. Analogy with the republic – Philosopher king, the soldiers, the workers
  4. Analogy with the body - The head, the heart, the belly/genitals
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15
Q

Plato (Republic – Myth of Er)

A
  1. A legend to persuade people to be good.
  2. Er dies in battle but comes back to life on funeral pyre.
  3. Says that he has been to the afterlife
  4. Good people are rewarded and vice versa
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16
Q

Plato (Phaedo)

A

Socrates wants to persuade his friends that he is immortal

  1. Argument from opposites – you can’t turn a tap on that hasn’t been off. Life must come from death and vice versa – soul must always be there.
  2. We know things a priori – so we must have known things before we were born.
  3. Soul is most like something invisible and divine. (As opposed to the body)
  4. Something is beautiful if it partakes in the form of beauty. Beauty cannot end.
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17
Q

Aristotle (soul)

A
  1. Soul accounts for change and rest in living bodies. -The soul is the system of abilities of an animate organism. (Life force)
  2. Because the soul is a system of abilities, it cannot be the body itself. (Rather like the force of gravity is not part of mass of an object but the mass is what is acted upon by gravity.)
  3. Therefore, Aristotle also thinks that a human soul is not capable of existence without the body.
  4. There are three different types of soul – vegetable, animal and rational.
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18
Q

Richard Dawkins (Soul)

A
  1. Two definitions of soul
  2. Soul 1 – another kind of existence – lifeforce
  3. Soul 2 – higher intellectual powers, ability to love art.
  4. Soul 1 doesn’t exist - the body is nothing but matter, soul 2 does
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19
Q

John Hick

A
  1. Replica theory.
  2. A replica appears in New York. We would assume that it was us continuing.
  3. It could be like this when we die.
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20
Q

Buddhism

A
  1. There is no soul/self
  2. But they believe we cause other people to exist – karma
  3. So there is a continuity
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21
Q

Hinduism

A
  1. Believe in a soul (atman)
  2. Soul migrates through reincarnation
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22
Q

Stevenson

A
  1. Researched lots of cases of children remembering past-lives.
  2. They did seem convincing
  3. Knew things they could not have otherwise known.
  4. Could just be chance – we only saw the cases where it worked.
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23
Q

Jewish ideas of resurrection

A
  1. Resurrection of the body at the end of time
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24
Q

Christian ideas of after life

A
  1. Believe in heaven and hell
  2. Source of hope
  3. Source of control
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25
Q

Disembodied/emobodied existence

A
  1. Disembodied – without a body (Plato)
  2. Embodied – with a body (Jews)
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26
Q

Kant (1 - Moral argument)

A
  1. Humans have a moral awareness (an obligation to bring about the summum bonum [via virtue])
  2. The summum bonum must be possible to achieve (ought implies can).
  3. It is not possible for humans to achieve the summum bonum alone.

and

  1. Happiness must be the reward of virtue
  2. Virtue does not always lead to happiness in this life
  3. There must be an afterlife where this happens.
  • Therefore*
    1. There must be a God who makes it possible.
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27
Q

David Hume (miracles)

(Enquiries concerning Human understanding, book X/part of the enlightenment, attempting to draw the limits to what can be spoken about scientifically – i.e. a miracle is a matter of faith and not of ‘reason’.)

A
  1. Our beliefs should be based on the force of the evidence.
  2. A miracle transgresses the laws of nature.
  3. Our evidence for miracles is based on testimony.
  4. No such testimony can be more forceful than the laws of nature.
  5. No miracle is supported by the testimony of sufficient trustworthy people.
  6. A sense of surprise and wonder lead us to unreasonable beliefs.
  7. Accounts of miracles occur in barbarous or ignorant people.
  8. Since each religion claims a monopoly on truth, the miracles of one religion must be contradicted by the miracles of another.
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28
Q

R. F. Holland

A
  1. Doesn’t have to transgress the laws of nature - … train track example..
  2. Lots of people would say that a baby being born can be described as a miracle…
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29
Q

Macquarrie

A
  1. A miracle excites wonder
  2. God is in the event somehow
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30
Q

Aquinas

A
  1. Done by divine power
  2. Intrinsically wonderful not just to one person
  3. Cause is absolutely hidden
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31
Q

Jesus’ miracles

A
  1. Healed the sick
  2. Water into wine
  3. Resurrection
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32
Q

Richard Swinburne on Religious experience

A

Categorises religious experiences into 5 types, yet all of the different types are either Private or Public experiences.

Public experiences…

  1. Experiencing a perfectly ordinary part of the world but seeing it as the handiwork of God, or a sign from God.
  2. Observable but unusual (Jesus walking on water).

Private experiences.

  1. Happen to a person who then describes them in ordinary language (Moses and burning bush).
  2. Happen but cannot be explained to others (mystical experiences of Teresa of Avila).
  3. Someone becoming more aware of the presence of God.
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33
Q

Richard Swinburne on the existence of God

A
  1. God exists if it is more probable that he exists than if he doesn’t – if the probability of God existing is more than 0.5.
  2. Principle of Credulity – with the absence of any reason to disbelieve it, one should accept what appears to be true (e.g., if one sees someone walking on water, one should believe that it is occurring)
  3. Principle of Testimony – with the absence of any reason to disbelieve them, one should accept that eyewitnesses or believers are telling the truth when they testify about religious experiences.
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34
Q

A. E. Taylor

A
  1. Compares RE to looking at art – we need to look with an ‘artist’s eye’ in order to see what is holy.
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35
Q

David Hay

A

Categorised thousands of reports of REs:

  1. Religious experience can be ‘triggered’ by something.
  2. Between a half and two-thirds of adults claim to have had a RE.
  3. Those who have are, on the whole, better educated than average, and happier.
  4. Many have no connection with formal religion.

…Therefore RE should be taken seriously.

36
Q

Jackson

A
  1. The distinction between public and private is not always clear. Why is (i) public rather than private?
37
Q

Wittgenstein (private language)

A
  1. A purely ‘private language’ is impossible and therefore senseless. If one wanted to note down a particular private sensation each time they felt it, how could they know that it was the same sensation they had felt each time?
38
Q

Richard Gale

A
  1. This is not how religious faith works. We can believe something with all our heart without any kind of evidence.
39
Q

Ramachandran and Blakeslee

A
  1. The reports associated with religious experience can be recreated using drugs and electrical impulses applied to the brain.
40
Q

Rudolf Otto

A
  1. A RE cannot be described in ordinary language since our words cannot capture the sense of something being ‘holy’
  2. therefore we use a certain set of words (a schema) to describe an experience – this process of creating a schema is schematisation.
  3. An encounter is an ‘apprehension of the wholly other’. This is distinct form the mystical which seeks unity of all things; a numinous experience is ‘tremendum et fascinans’.
41
Q

Schliermacher

A
  1. RE is an experience that puts the particular, the limited into a perspective that is eternal.
42
Q

William James (Pragmatist)

A
  1. Truth is what is useful -
  2. ‘Pragmatism’s only test of probable truth is what works best in the way of leading us, what fits every part of life’s best and combines with the collectivity of experience’s demands, nothing being omitted.’
  3. Having observed different religious experiences they existentially/objectively have four distinguishing features of a RE:
    • Passive
    • Ineffable
    • Noetic
    • Transient
  4. The following value judgements are also made by the recipients:

RE have significant impacts:

  • They have authority
  • They are very real
  • They bring about long-lasting change

Their view of the world and their place in it alters

They are part of a person’s psyche but that does not remove the possibility of a supernatural element.

  1. RE do not provide proof of God - they ‘cannot be cited as unequivocally supporting the infinitist belief… but that we can experience union with something larger than ourselves and in that union find our greatest peace.’
43
Q

Martin Luther

A
  1. God has control over everything. (We have no control over anything)
  2. Therefore we cannot be saved by good works. (We cannot achieve happiness by doing good, since we do not have control over it.
  3. We can only achieve salvation by having faith in (trusting) God.
  4. (The only way we can be logically happy is by believing/knowing that everything will be ok)
44
Q

John Calvin

A
  1. God will decide who is saved and who is damned. (Predestination)
45
Q

Hondereich

A
  1. Every event must have a cause (is determined)
  2. Actions are determined by what has already happened.
  3. Human beings are therefore not responsible for their actions.
46
Q

Norman Schwartz

A
  1. Every action is either caused or uncaused (random)
  2. If the action was caused, then that action was not chosen freely and the person who performed that action is therefore not morally responsible for what he/she has done.
  3. If an action is uncaused then the person who performed that action is not morally responsible for what he/she has done.
  4. We are not morally responsible for what we do.
47
Q

Bryan Caplan

A

All actions are determined by one of the following:

  1. The genetic makeup of the individual.
  2. The shared family environment.
  3. The non-shared family environment.
48
Q

Pavlov (1849-1936)

A
  1. Actions occur as a result of a ‘conditioned reflex’.
  2. (The dog salivates as a result of ringing a bell)
49
Q

Skinner (1904-1990)

A
  1. Behaviour occurs as a result of ‘operant conditioning’.
  2. (Learning is a function of a change in behaviour – we learn to act differently as a result of the consequences of stimuli)
50
Q

Laplace (1749 – 1827)

A
  1. If an intelligent being knew the position of every particle in the universe, one could, using a single fancy equation know everything that was going to happen.
51
Q

John Locke

A
  1. When we are born we are a blank slate (a ‘tabula rasa’).
  2. Everything we know is derived from experience.
  3. We have a nature over which we have no control.
  4. It is as if we were locked in a room but unaware of that fact. We therefore believe that we are choosing to be in the room.
52
Q

David Hume (causation)

A
  1. When we say ‘A causes B’, all that we have a right to say is that, in past experience, A and B have frequently appeared together or in rapid succession, and no instance has been observed of A not followed or accompanied by B.
  2. However many instances we may have observed of the conjunction of A and B, that gives no reason for expecting them to be conjoined on a future occasion, though it is a cause of this expectation.
  3. (Two clocks, both running next to each other, but one is a second behind the other. One goes hourly bell chimes a second after the other, but there is no reason to believe that one causes the other.)
  4. What matters is what ‘strikes us most strongly’. Custom (what is considered normal) is the great guide of life.

(i.e. complete scepticism)

53
Q

Thomas Reid

A
  1. We have no sensory experience of the necessitation of an effect by its cause. But this does not imply our ordinary concept of causation is mistaken.
  2. The concept of causation is not an idea copied from a sensory impression in the first place. Sensations never bear resemblance to the qualities they help us to perceive.

(Causation is almost like a ‘platonic’ form)

  1. ‘[I]f we had not will, and that degree of understanding which will necessarily implies, we could exert no active power, and consequently could have none: for power that cannot be exerted is no power. It follows also, that the active power, of which only we can have any distinct conception, can be only in beings that have understanding and will.’
54
Q

Adam Smith

A
  1. Humans have free will.
  2. We cannot predict the future.
  3. The free market should be allowed to determine price and value through the law of supply and demand, led by ‘the invisible hand’.
55
Q

Karl Marx

A
  1. Historical Materialism: Everything is predictable (determined).
  2. There can be no such thing as morality.

(Religion is the ‘opium of the people’ – it keeps people down by making them look forward to an afterlife)

  1. Society will inevitably go through six stages:
    1. Primitive communism
    2. Slave society
    3. Feudalism
    4. Capitalism
    5. Socialism
    6. Communism
56
Q

Fredrich Hayek

A
  1. The price of an object is a particular meaning of that object- in a similar way to the meaning of a word.
  2. As a result, it is wrong to forcibly set the price of something.
  3. The future cannot be planned, because no one knows what the future will be. No one knows what we will need.
  4. The competitive market is the best way of preparing for the future since the most useful ideas will remain and the least useful will be removed. (Evolutionary theory- survival of the fittest.)
  5. As such the market is the only way to decide what we need.
57
Q

Augustine

A
  1. God is divine love – like the form of the Good in Plato
  2. Therefore the conscience is from God
58
Q

Aquinas

A
  1. Syndreisis – Innate knowledge of what is right and wrong
  2. Conscietia – applying the secondary precepts
59
Q

Butler

A
  1. Conscience came from self-love
  2. So those without a conscience didn’t love themselves.
60
Q

Newman

A
  1. ‘Lead kindly light’
  2. We all fear doing wrong – we have an awareness of right and wrong.
  3. Conscience is the messenger of God
61
Q

Freud

A
  1. Superego, Ego, Id
  2. Guilty conscience comes from internal conflict – Oedipus and Electra complex (son wanting to have sex with mother/daughter with father)
62
Q

Fromm

A
  1. Conscience comes from society.
  2. Marxist view - our conscience is determined
  3. Changed his mind later in life – came to believe in the conscience as being important
63
Q

Piaget

A
  1. Idea of conscience developing through time
  2. (Implication is that it can’t be from God)
64
Q

Kohlberg

A

Levels of moral development

  1. Pre-conventional – selfish exchange
  2. Conventional – social order
  3. Post-conventional – universal ideas
65
Q

Aristotle (virtue theory)

A
  1. Teleology – the study of purpose. The final cause.
  2. Eudaimonia – flourishing – doing well what we do best
  3. Something is ‘good’ if it fulfils its purpose. A good pen writes, for example.
  4. In order to write it must have certain attributes – for example, ink must flow.
  5. But these attributes can be either in excess (too much ink flows from the pen) or they can be deficient (not enough ink flows from the pen)
  6. The middle point, or Golden mean of each of these attributes or traits is the ‘virtue’. A good soldier must be brave but not foolhardy or cowardly.
66
Q

Virtue Theory

A
  1. Aretaic - agent (person) centred rather than action centred
  2. Often uses the examples of good people – What would Jesus, St. Teresa, Gandhi do?
67
Q

Susan Wolf

A
  1. Moral saints would be boring
  2. Wouldn’t have time for art, jokes etc…
68
Q

Rosalind Hursthouse’s version of virtue ethics

A
  1. An action is right iff it is what a virtuous agent would do in the circumstances.
    1. A virtuous agent is one who acts virtuously, that is, one who has and exercises the virtues.
  2. A virtue is a character trait a human being needs to flourish or live well.
69
Q

Rosalind Husthouse’s responses to criticisms of VT

A
  1. Eudaimonia is not too obscure – any more so than happiness.
  2. It is not circular. i.e. virtuous action is what a virtuous person does. Virtuous person is someone who does virtuous action.
  3. It does answer the question ‘what should I do?’
  4. Virtue theory does offer principles – act justly; don’t act unjustly. It is not about copying virtuous people.
  5. It does not involve reducing all our moral concepts down to the virtuous agent.
  6. Virtue theory suffers from pluralism and relativism no more than other theories. Virtue theorists need to stick their necks out.
  7. There may be conflicts between the virtues, but there are conflicts in all theories.
  8. All moral theories lack, in some senses, according to the ‘condition of adequacy’ but it is necessarily the case that moral theories do.
70
Q

G E M Anscombe (virtue ethics)

A
  1. If religious based ethics is false, then virtue ethics is the way moral philosophy ought to be developed.
  2. (She was religious)
71
Q

G E M Anscombe (other criticisms)

A
  1. Conscience leads to people doing terrible things e.g. Sati (burning of widows)
  2. Self-legislation cannot be the way forward – everyone cannot make up their own rules.
72
Q

Natural Law

A
  1. Aquinas derived from Aristotle – teleology
  2. Purpose to life and there is a law that directs that purpose
  3. Primary precepts: Protect life; Reproduce; Educate; God and live in Society
  4. Secondary precepts follow on: e.g. no stealing, lying, fornicating, adultery, killing innocents, being lazy
73
Q

Kantian ethics (2)

A
  1. Ends don’t justify the means.
  2. People are ends in themselves.
  3. Universal maxims – act according to the law that you think everyone should follow.
  4. Kant (1)
74
Q

Bentham Utilitarianism

A
  1. (Act utilitarianism) Do the act which produces greatest pleasure for the greatest number.
  2. Hedonic calculus – measurement of happiness (intensity, duration, purity)
  3. Principle of utility – Moral rule – if it produce pleasure it’s good/pain bad
75
Q

Mill’s utilitarianism

A
  1. Rule Utilitarianism)
  2. Greatest happiness principle. (Replaces pleasure with happiness)
  3. ‘It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied: better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied’
  4. Liberal idea – do what you want, so long as it doesn’t affect others.
76
Q

Peter Singer’s utilitarianism

A
  1. Preference Utilitarianism
  2. Do the action which promotes the preferences/interests (rather than pleasure, or happiness) of the people involved.
77
Q

Genesis

A
  1. God created the world and saw that it was good.
  2. Adam and Eve disobeyed him in the Garden of Eden
  3. God punished the people with a flood (Noah)
78
Q

Leviticus and Exodus

A
  1. Homosexuality is an abomination
  2. However, there are 613 rules – including rules for selling one’s daughter into slavery; not wearing clothes made of two threads; not eat or ever touch pigs (football)
  3. Not lending money for interest to Jews
79
Q

Jesus (in the Gospels)

A
  1. Jesus came to interpret the 613 laws. What is important is the Spirit not the letter of the law
  2. ‘You have heard that it was said to those of old, ‘You shall not commit adultery.’ But I say to you that whoever looks at a woman to lust for her has already committed adultery with her in his heart.
  3. ‘For there are eunuchs who were born that way, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others–and there are those who choose to live like eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. The one who can accept this should accept it.’
  4. You cannot worship God and Mammon (material things) told the rich man to give away his wealth.
  5. You have to be willing to lose your money

It is harder for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of heaven than for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle.

80
Q

St. Paul

A
  1. Very much against sex that is not for procreation
  2. Against homosexuality
81
Q

Catholic Church (Catechism)

A
  1. Against homosexuality
  2. Follow natural law of Aquinas
  3. No contraception
  4. No abortion
  5. Lending money for interest used to be illegal
82
Q

Gaia hypothesis

A
  1. James Lovelock
  2. The world is one big organism (Gaia) that works together
83
Q

Milton Friedman

A
  1. The purpose of a business is to maximise profit
  2. Morality is irrelevant in business
  3. (Similar to Hayek’s ‘moral stone’ comment about social justice)
84
Q

Case studies

A
  1. Ford and the recalling of dangerous cars (it was more expensive to recall dangerous cars than to pay compensation for the death of those who died)
  2. Nestle – told poor people that their milk was better than breast milk for babies
  3. Primark and slave labour
  4. Fairtrade - epona sport
  5. Epona Sport ‘the most important thing was knowing people and having good relationships’
  6. Different people have different ideas about what is fair – e.g. fair wage
85
Q

Kant on the environment

A
  1. He did not see animals or the environment as intrinsically useful
  2. But he did value treating them well instrumentally
86
Q

Wiles

A
  1. Miracles are damaging to faith
  2. It is contradictory to believe in an omnibenevolent God who would only intervene occasionally to help people.
  3. Why would God grant all the miracles in the Bible and not help us now
  4. ‘Even though miracles are rare by nature, it seems strange that nothing prevented Auschwitz or Hiroshima.’
87
Q
A

A2 philosophy and ethics (1 decks)

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