Building Construction Flashcards
Factors that influence fire behavior include:
_____ classifications
____ classifications
Fire or fuel _____
Fire______
Building
Occupancy
Load
Resistance
_______ initially classify structures by the materials used in their construction.
Building codes
Type I-
Type II-
Type III-
Type IV-
Type V-
Fire resistive
Non combustible or protected non combustible
Exterior protected (masonry)
Heavy timber
Wood frame
With the exception of type ___, the major classifications are further divided into ___ or ___ subclassifications.
Type IV heavy timber
Two or three
NFPA ___ details the requirements for each of the classifications and subclassifications. In NFPA ——each classification is designated by a three digit number code. For example, type I construction can be either ____ or ____.
NFPA 220 x2
4-4-3 or 3-3-2
NFPA 220
First digit-
Second digit-
Third digit-
Fire resistance rating of exterior bearing walls
Fire resistance rating of structural frames or columns and girders that support loads of more than one floor.
Fire resistance rating of the floor construction
The IBC uses construction classifications similar to NFPA 220, although the requirements for ____ differ.
Individual structural components
Type I
Variation of fire resistance by application include:
Bearing walls, columns, and beams-
Floor-
Roof deck and construction supporting the roof-
Interior partitions enclosing stairwells and corridors-
Partitions separating occupancies or tenants-
2-4 hours as specified by local code and construction classification
2 or 3 hours
One-2 hours
As specified by local code, usually 1 or 2 hours
As specified by local code
Type I buildings are most commonly constructed using a ____ or ____.
Protected steel frame or reinforced concrete
Unprotected steel has no _____.
Fire resistance
_____ can fail under an explosion or intense fire of long duration
Reinforced concrete
Type I
A code may also allow the use of _____ treated wood in roofs or interior partitions.
Fire retardant
Type II
In addition to steel and concrete block, __ and ___ can be used with a limited structural role.
Glass and aluminum
Some building codes contain a provision to omit the fire-resistive rating for a roof construction for some occupancy types when the roof is located _____ feet above the floor.
MORE THAN 20
Type IIA (protected) requires that structural components have ___ hour fire resistance. Protected non combustible construction is similar to Type I but with a ________ for fire resistance
One hour
Lower requirement for
Type II
The speed at which unprotected members will fail depends on the following factors:3
Ceiling height of the building
Size of the unprotected steel members intensity and duration of the exposing fire
___________construction has been commonly referred to as “ordinary construction”. _______construction is frequently constructed with exterior walls of _______, but from a technical standpoint, any non-combustible material with the required fire resistance can be used for the exterior walls. Interior structural components that are permitted to be partially or wholly combustible include:
Type III x2
Masonry
Walls
Columns
Beams
Floors
Roofs
_____ construction is classified by the presence of non-combustible structural components that have fire resistance ratings within a specified range.
Type I
Type I
Combustible materials typically are permitted for such uses as the following:
roof coverings
interior floor finishes
interior wall finishes and trims
doors and door frames
window sashes and frames
platforms
nailing and furring strips
light transmitting plastics
Foam plastics subject to restrictions
Type III construction has ___ subclassifications allowing the interior structural components to be ___ or _____.
Two
Protected or unprotected
When the structural components of type 3 construction are required to have a fire rating (such as for IBC type___ and NFPA type____ construction), they can be protected by several means, including ____ in older buildings and ____ in newer buildings. In NFPA type ____ and ibc type ___, _____ steel is sometimes used to support combustible members. Type 3 construction commonly uses nominal ___x___ joists for floor construction.
IBC typeIIIA and NFPA type III 2-1-1
Plaster
Gypsum board
NFPA type III 2-0-0 and IBC type IIIB, unprotected steel
2 inch by 10 inch
Type IV construction is the only construction type that does not include A and B subdivisions. Instead the designation ____ is used.
2HH
Type IV construction requires minimum nominal dimensions of ____ x___ for floor construction
6 inch x 10 inch
Many type V structures are required to have a ___hour fire resistance for structural components
1 hour
In modern practice, wood-frame buildings are most often constructed using a method known as____ frame construction. This technique was introduced to the United States in the ______. — is considered “the common currency of small residential and commercial buildings in North America today.”
Light-frame construction
1830s
Light-frame construction
____ occurs where a new structure is built onto an existing structure of a different construction type.
Mixed construction
Building construction and ______ classifications are used together in building codes to establish limitations on the permissible ____and ______ areas of buildings. These classifications reflect the _______ issues Inherent to specific types of occupancies.
Occupancy
Heights and open
Life safety
A 15 story apartment building will be required to be of Type____ construction in the ____(NFPA___). However, an 11-story or lower apartment building can be of Type ___ construction (NFPA __).
Type IA IBC(NFPA 4-4-2)
Type IB (NFPA 3-3-2)
The IBC contains __ major occupancy classifications:
___Group A
___Group B
______Group E
______Group F
_____Group H
___Group I
____ Group M
____Group R
_____ Group S
______ Group U
Ten
Assembly group A
Business group B
Education Group E
Factories group F
High hazard group H
Institutional group I
mercantile group M
residential group R
storage group S
utility and miscellaneous group U
The IBC contains a total of __ subgroups within the 10 major occupancy classifications.
26
The IBC also separately addresses one and two family dwellings _____ stories high. Although these buildings are classified as R in the IBC, they are governed by a separate code, the __________.
NOT MORE THAN 3 stories high
International residential code
In contrast to the IBC, NFPA ___, and NFPA___, identify ___ major occupancy classifications:
NFPA 5000
NFPA 101
12
Assembly
Educational
Day care
Health care
Ambulatory health care
Detention and correctional
Residential
Residential board and care
Mercantile
Business
Industrial
Storage
An infant care center and a restaurant located in the same building can be required to be separated by a ____ separation. The specific requirements for occupancy separation will depend on the ____. Required separations can range from ___to___ and not all occupancies require a separation.
2-hour fire-resistive separation
Local building code
2 to 4 hours
______, the totals quantity of combustible material in a compartment, is a critical factor when determining the fire safety requirements of a space.
Fuel load
The fuel load contributes to the calculation of the ____, the maximum amount of heat that can be released if all fuel is consumed.
Fire load
The fire load will vary depending on the ____ of the fuel load.
Heat of combustion
The fire load is a product of the ____ of the combustibles multiplied by their ______, expressed in __________.
Weight of the combustibles multiplied by their heat of combustion, expressed in pounds per square foot
Building codes contain explicit criteria for determining what constitutes a combustible material. The ____ defines a non combustible material as being “in the form in which used and under the conditions anticipated, will not ignite, burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapors, when subjected to fire or heat. “ the most commonly used test for determining combustibility is _______.
International building code
ASTM E 136, standard test method for behavior of materials in a vertical tube furnace at 750C
The severity of a fire is a factor of the ____ plus the ______. The faster the available fuel burns, the greater will be the _______.
Fire load plus the rate at which the fuel burns
Heat release rate (HRR)
______ indicates the ability of a structural assembly to maintain its load bearing capacity and structural integrity under fire conditions.
Fire resistance
_____ is the most common method used to determine fire resistance. Results from ——— are also incorporated into building codes. The standard test is _____ also known as NFPA __________.
Laboratory testing
ASTM E119 also known as NFPA 251 standard method of tests of fire endurance of building construction and materials
The failure criteria are specific to the specimen being tested. The primary points of failure for the test are:
Failure to support an applied load
Temperature increase on the unexposed side of wall, floor, and roof assemblies of _______ above ambient temperatures.
Passage of heat or flame through the assembly sufficient to _____.
Excess temperature on steel members
250F (121C) above ambient temperatures
Sufficient to ignite cotton waste
Fire resistance ratings for test specimens are expressed in standard intervals such as :
15 minutes, 30 min, 45 min, 1 hour, 1-1/2 hours, 2 hrs, 3 hrs, 4 hrs
A more severe test fire may be used for applications including evaluating the structural members used in ______. That test is described in _________.
Petroleum refineries
ASTM standard 1529
The ____ test is the only standardized test method currently universally accepted by building codes. The standard test evaluates the ability of structural assemblies to carry a ____ and act as a _____.
E-119
Structural load and act as a fire barrier
Joint systems for floor to wall and wall to wall connections are tested in accordance with ______.
UL Standard 2079
Some of the organizations that perform fire resistance testing include:
UL
UL Canada
Building research division of the national research council of canada
Southwest research institute
Intertek testing
University of California Berkeley, forest products lab
Armstrong cork company
National gypsum company
Probably the best known of the laboratories is ____.
(____), _____ publishes a fire resistance directory, which lists assemblies that have been tested and their fire resistance ratings.
Underwriters Laboratories
UL annually publishes
The NFPA ____ standard time-temperature test is the most commonly used method of satisfying building code requirements for structural fire resistance.
251
In _____, the American society of civil engineers(ASCE) and the society of fire protection engineers (SFPE) jointly developed a standard for the calculation of fire resistance of structural elements. That standard known as the ___,provides the methods for calculating fire resistance ratings that are equivalent to the results obtained from the standard fire test. These calculations are limited to the use with the following materials:(5)
1997
ASCE/SFPE 29
Structural steel
Plain and reinforced concrete
Timber and wood
Concrete masonry
Clay masonry
Structural steel designated ___ or ___ is the most prevalent steel used in compiling the test data. If high strength steel such as ___ were to be used, the calculated results may be inaccurate.
A7 or A36
A242
Accommodating the _____and _____ of the forces to which the structure will be subjected is the most critical aspect of engineering design.
Type and magnitude
To calculate the structural supports needed to allow a building to withstand common forces, ____ are categorized and calculated. The direction of forces from loads acting on the interior of structural members is expressed as _____.
Loads
Stress
The forces within a structural support system that resist applied loads are referred to as ____.
Reactions R
One common type of reaction is a ____ within a horizontal structural component that is loaded vertically. When the vertical load exceeds the strength of the component, the component will bend and possibly fail.
Bending moment
The force of _____ is the most common load imposed on a structure via the weight of the structures components, content, and any occupancy activity.
Gravity
________ within the material are classified according to the direction of the force.
Stresses
______- pulls the material apart; referred to as ___ stress
Tension
Tensile
____-squeezes the material;referred to as compressive stress
Compression
Compressive stress
_____ slides one plane of a material past an adjacent plane.
Shear
Loads create ___ stresses in the bottom of a beam and ___ stresses in the top of a beam. ___ stress is also created across the vertical cross section of the beam.
Tension stresses
Compressive stresses
Shear stress
-
-
Axial load
Eccentric load
Torsional load
The total stresses within structural members must be lower than the _____ of the material for the structure to remain intact. A ratio of the ———- of the material to the maximum supportable design stress is added to the minimum required strength as a __________.
Failure point
Factor of safety
A ____ load is fixed in location and is quantifiable.
Dead load
A ____ load is not fixed or permanent.
Live load
____ loads are steady or are applied gradually.
Static loads
_______loads involve motion and are capable of delivering energy greatly in excess of the weight of the object involved.
Dynamic loads
For a dynamic load to stop moving, the surface it impacts must absorb the _______. Whether the surface can withstand the dynamic load depends on the ____ and _______properties of the material used to support the surface.
Kinetic energy
Design strength and energy absorbing
________produce highly localized forces and non-uniform loads in the supporting structural members. Structural supports must be designed to accommodate the _______ loads.
Concentrated loads
Anticipated
Rain and snow are ____ loads.
Live
Water from firefighting operations can add an additional live load to a building. This load maybe _____as fire flow, or ____ as accumulated water. For example, the —— load of a stream discharging _____gallons per minute may impact is target with _____ pounds of water per minute.In some cases, ________ operations will be necessary because water at a depth of __inches adds a static load of __ pounds per square foot.
Dynamic
Static
250 gpm
2080 pounds
Dewatering
3 inches
21 pounds per sqft
_______-straight line winds apply force to a surface.
_______-wind flowing around the object may catch along a buildings surface.
_______- wind may produce a suction effect on the downwind side of the building resulting in outward pressure.
_____-wind may cause the building to Sway👮🏾♂️ in a back-and-forth motion.
______-wind passing over a surface, such as a roof, may shake the surface
________-wind may dislodge or move objects from the buildings service.
Direct pressure
Drag
Negative pressure
Rocking
Vibration
Clean-off
In designing buildings to withstand wind forces, ____ is used as the primary consideration.
Direct pressure
Buildings located in a region susceptible to hurricanes must include sufficient ____ and ____ for the anticipated conditions.
Supports and braces
_____ forces apply the most complicated load that must be accommodated by structural design.
Seismic forces
____ year period- the typical expected “life span” of a building
50 year period
The overall effect of the seismic load against a structure depends on the _____ of the ground beneath the building more than the total movement. Seismic loads may be far more complex than wind loads because the movement of the ground beneath a building can be ____.
Acceleration
Three-dimensional
_______ loads that create horizontal motion are the most significant force generated by an earthquake.
Lateral loads
____ systems- ______ bearings placed in a layer between the building and the foundation.
Shear systems
Elastomeric bearings
_____ is a strategy used to harden a structure against expected loads.
Structural stiffening
A ___ is a structural member that carries loads perpendicular to its longitudinal dimension.
Beam
Materials used in beams can include:(3)
Steel
Wood
Reinforced concrete
_____beam-supported beneath both ends and free to rotate. A wood joist resting on a masonry wall is an example of a ———.
Simply supported beam
_____beams-rigidly supported at each end.
Restrained beams
____ beams-supported at one end; must be able to support a vertical load in addition to resisting bending stresses. Often support balconies
Cantilever beams
_____ beams- similar to cantilever beams but with additional support.
Overhanging beams
_____ beams- may span several vertical supports.
Continuous beams
The ____ flange of the beam carries compressive stresses and the ____ flange of the beam carries tensile stresses. The center horizontal line of the web is known as the _____ because the tension and compression stresses are zero, but the ———- is the maximum point of shear stress.
Top
Bottom
Neutral axis
The _______ of the beam carry(s) most of the load resisting the bending stress.
Top and bottom flanges
The stresses are a function of the ___ area of the flanges and the ___ dimension of the beam. ___ beams are capable of supporting greater loads than __ beams, even if they have the same ——- area
Cross-sectional area
Vertical dimension
Tall
Short
Columns are structural members designed to support a _____ load. The stresses created within a column are primarily _____.
Axial LOAD
Compressive STRESSES
Materials used in columns can include:(5)
Wood
Steel
Cast iron
Concrete
Masonry
Tall, thin columns fail by _____
Short, squat columns fail by ____
Buckling
Crushing
____ is a curved structural member with primarily compressive interior stresses. —— produce ______ forces at their end supports, which the supports must resist.
Arch
Inclined forces
_____ are used to carry loads across a distance.
Arches
Materials used in arches can include:(4)
Masonry
Steel
Concrete
Laminated wood
If the supports at the end of arches shift because of settling soil or thermal expansion, ____ stresses may develop in the arch. To provide for minor adjustments, arches are sometimes designed with ____. If the end supports cannot maintain the arch, _____ can be used to prevent the arch from spreading.
Bending stresses
Hinges
Horizontal tie rods
Although _____ are essentially straight, a —— used to support loads over a distance will assume a curved shape.
Cables
The stresses in a cable are ___ stresses. Cables are usually made of ___ strands, although ___ may be used where weight is a critical factor.
Tension stresses
Steel strands
Aluminum
______ are framed structural units made up of a group of triangles in one plane. A ____ is made only of straight members.
Trusses
True truss
The top and bottom members of a truss are called _____. The middle section of a truss is called the ____ or ____.
Chords
Web or diagonals
Typical truss shapes span distances of ____ to ____ feet, but truss spans in modern construction may exceed ______ feet.
22 to 70 feet
MAY EXCEED 100 feet
Some types of roof trusses, such as the ____ truss, have a curved top chord. These curved members are unavoidably subjected to _____ stresses.
Bowstring truss
Bending stresses
Lightweight wood or metal trusses, known as _____, have become common in floor construction, taking the place of solid joists.
Truss joists
Lightweight steel trusses, known as _____, are also used for floor and roof construction in fire-resistive and non-combustible construction.
Bar joists
When loads are applied only at the point of intersection of the truss members, only ____ or ______ stresses will affect the members of the truss. In addition, loads applied to the truss between the intersection points of the members will also create _______ stresses.
Compressive or tensile stresses
Bending stresses
_____ are three-dimensional truss structures. —— are well-suited to support _______ loads.
Space frames
Uniformly distributed
______ walls are commonly placed at the exterior of a structure, but they may also include internal walls.
Load bearing walls
Load bearing walls carry ____ loads and provide ___ support to the structure along the length of the wall.
Compressive LOADS
Lateral SUPPORT
Common materials in bearing walls include:(5)
Concrete blocks
Brick
Stone
Solid wood
Concrete panels
_______structures use walls to support spanning elements including:(3)
Bearing wall structures
Beams
Trusses
Precast concrete slabs
A ____ structure uses structural supports in a manner similar to the way the skeleton supports the human body. The walls may also provide lateral stiffness but provide ___ structural support.
Frame structure
No structural support
In the fire service, the term ____ construction often refers to a wood-frame building, but ___ structural systems are also built using other materials.
Frame construction
Frame structural systems
Components of a frame may be constructed using a series of _____.
Trusses
______ construction includes frames built from relatively closely spaced vertical steel studs connected by top and bottom horizontal members. Studs are placed ___ to ___ inches apart.
Steel stud wall construction
12 to 16 inches apart
A steel stud wall is frequently provided with ____ for stability.
Diagonal bracing
____ construction framing uses a series of vertical elements to support horizontal elements that carry ____ loads.
Post and beam construction
Transverse
Materials that can be used in post and beam construction include _____ for the posts and ___ and ____ for the posts and beams.
Masonry for the posts and steel and precast concrete for the posts and beams
The distinctive characteristic of post and beam framing is the _____ of the vertical posts and the ____ dimension of the members. Posts may be ___x____ inches when supporting roofs only.
Spacing
Cross-sectional dimension
6 x 8 inches
A ____ structural system is characterized by columns and beams reinforced to transmit the bending stress through the joints.
Rigid frame structural system
Rigid frame buildings are often ____ in height with a ___ roof. Materials used in rigid frames include:(3)
Single story
Gabled roof
Steel
Laminated wood
Reinforced concrete
Rigid frames
The peak of the roof is usually provided with a _____ connection to allow for ____ movement between the two halves of the frame. The ___ will be the last portion of the assembly to fail under fire conditions.
Hinged connection
Slight movement
Joints
Because of the high stress load at the connection, the intersection between the slab and the column is usually reinforced by additional material in the form of a ____ or a _____.
Capital or a drop panel
_______ consist primarily of an enclosing, waterproof surface; the stresses resulting from the applied loads occur within the bearing wall structures.
Surface systems
_____ are similar to fabric tents, but differ in that they are intended to be permanent structures.
Membrane structures
Building codes typically address membrane structures with a life of ____ , while fire codes address those used for _____. Recent designs use ___ coated glass fiber for the fabric. In early permanent membrane structures, _____ -coated ____ fabric was used.
180 days OR MORE
LESS THAN 180 days
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coated glass fiber
Polyvinyl-coated polyester fabric
Membrane structures
Fabric cannot resist ___ forces; therefore, frameworks must support the fabrics. Types of frames include:(3)
Compressive FORCES
Cables and masts
Tubular
Solid
Membrane structures posses several design advantages over traditional construction, including:
Fabrics weigh less than other roof systems: about __ pounds per square foot.
2 pounds per square foot
Membrane structures
In the US and Canada, frames are usually ____ and sometimes ____. Other materials used in the frames of membrane structures include:(3)
Steel
Aluminum
Wood
Concrete
Steel
____ structures are rigid, three dimensional structures having thin components, as compared to other structural material dimensions.
Shell structures
Shell structures are most commonly constructed of ____, although it is possible to construct them using ____ or ____. Shell structures lend themselves to _______shapes.
Concrete
Plywood or fiberglass
Regular geometric
The ____ is responsible to ensure that the necessary building systems initially provide the intended level of fire and life safety. Subsequently, the ______must maintain these systems over time.
Building design team
Building owner/or management
Stairs that are NOT part of the means of egress are often referred to as ________. Typically, these stairs are open and connect only_____levels per code limitations. Buildings that are ______stories in height may be required to include one stairway that extends to the roof for access to mechanical equipment, and is identified by signage in the stairway.
Convenience stairs
Two
Four OR MORE STORIES
All stair types have basic components in common. The step itself consists of the ___ and ___, commonly referred to as the ___and___.
Tread and riser
Run and rise
___stairs extend in one direction for their entire length. ___ may be used between sections of vertical travel.
Straight-run stairs
Landings
_____ stairs have an intermediate landing between floors and reverse direction at that point.
Return stairs
___stairs are two separate sets of stairs constructed in a common shaft. ——-stairs often use a pair of ____stairs for assembly occupancies that have large floor to ceiling heights.
Scissor stairs
Return stairs
____stairs are often found as grand stairs or convenience stairs serving only ___ levels. The minimum width of the run is usually ____. A special requirement for —-stairs is that the small radius of the full circle is _______ the widest part of the stair tread.
Circular stairs
Two levels
10 inches
GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO twice
____stairs consist of a series of steps spiraling around a single column to fit in a very small space.
Spiral stairs
___stairs are actually ladders used to provide access to an attic space that does not have a permanent access stair.
Folding stairs
___stairs as a component of the required means of egress, must meet strict requirements to ensure safe passage during building evacuation.
Exit stairs
___stairs must resist the effects of the products of combustion.
Protected
____stairs are naturally ventilated on one or more sides.
Exterior stairs
_____ include open metal stairs and landings attached to the outside of a building. —— have not been permitted in new construction for many ___ though many still exist.
Fire escapes
Many decades
Building codes have traditionally required a minimum of one _____ for stairs serving buildings ___stories or higher. More recently, codes also require protection for stairs serving floor levels _______feet below the level of exit discharge.
One smokeproof stair enclosure
5 stories OR HIGHER
MORE THAN 30 feet
______ enclosures protect the stairway enclosure and provide a means of smoke ventilation before the smoke enters a stair enclosure.
Passive smokeproof enclosures
____stairways are not enclosed with fire-rated construction. Building codes typically allow the use of ——stairs in buildings only when they connect ____floors above basement level.
Open stairways
NO MORE THAN two adjacent floors
A ____system is used to transport items and materials. Some——, such as ____ or _____ systems, work in enclosed compartments.
Conveyor system
Screw or pneumatic systems
Incomplete ______ or ____ is a primary safety hazard at conveyor penetrations during a fire.
Door or shutter closure
_____ are a conveyor transport device aligned as a stairway with electrically powered steps that move continuously in one direction.
Escalators
Escalators
The driving machinery is located under an access plate at the _____ landing. Escalator speeds are standardized at ___ feet per minute. Older escalators usually operate at speeds of either ___ or ___ feet per minute. The steps are linked by a ____ and move around the escalator frame.
Upper landing
100 feet per minute
EITHER 90 or 120 feet per minute
Linked by a step chain
Vertical penetrations for escalators serving ____floors must be protected. The most common protection for the vertical opening is to use _____ and ____ around the opening. Combined, these two features may be arranged as an ______ inch deep ———with a row of ——— on all sides outside the ———. A ____ at the top of the escalator can also provide vertical opening protection.
MORE THAN 2 floors
Closely spaced sprinklers and draft stops
18 inch deep draft stop with a row of automatic sprinklers on all sides
Rolling shutter
Most elevator regulations are based on ________
ASME/ANSI A17.1
____ elevators carry people
Passenger
____ elevators carry resources that may be bulky or heavy
Freight elevators
____elevators are passenger elevators designed to also carry freight
Service elevators
The two most common types of power used in elevators are ___ and ____.
Hydraulic and electric
_____ elevators do not have brakes
Hydraulic
Historically, the practical upper limit for hydraulic elevators was about ___stories and the elevator shaft required a deep well for the ram to extend into the ground to reach the lowest floor.
About 6 stories
______ elevators use a hoisting cable and drum, but the exact configuration of those components is different among the styles.
Electric
____elevators use a hoisting cable wound on a drum located in a motor room directly over the hoistway.
Drum elevators
____elevators are obsolete and found only in very old structures or in use as freight elevators
Drum elevators
____ elevators are the most common type of elevator in buildings over ___stories.
Traction elevators
OVER 6 stories
Hoist cables attached to the elevator run up and over the ____ at the top of the hoistway and then down the back wall of the hoistway to connect to the movable counterweights.
Drive sheave
Even though counterweights reduce the amount of energy needed to raise the elevators, the operating heights may require them to have as much as a _____volt power supply. The drive motors maybe either _____ or ______ current types.
500 volt
Direct current or alternating current
_____ motors have a braking system that operates during both normal operation and malfunctions.
Traction motors
During normal operation, the brakes on traction elevators with ____ motors aid directly in stopping the car at the correct floor. On elevators with ___ motors, the brakes do not play any part in actually stopping the elevator car. The motor stops the car and then the brakes are applied to hold the car in place.
AC motors
DC motors
_____ elevators feature controls that may be remote from the elevator system. The other components may all fit within the hoistway.
Machine room-less elevators
Elevator safety features
_______-an electric switch that terminates power before the elevator reaches the upper or lower limits of the hoistway.
Terminal device
Elevator safety features
____-large springs or hydraulic cylinders and pistons located at the bottom of the pit that act as shock absorbers should the terminal switch fail…only stop a car traveling at its normal rate of speed
Buffers
Elevator safety features
____-also known as the speed governor. This switch slows the drive motor when the elevator starts to exceed a safe speed. If the car continues to accelerate the switch trips the over speed switch and applies the car safeties.
Speed-reducing switch
Elevator safety features
_____-also connected to the speed governor. This switch is activated if the speed-reducing switch fails to slow the car sufficiently.
Over speed switch
Elevator safety features
_____-tapered pairs of steel jaws that wedge against the guide rails and bring the elevator to a stop elevator safeties are designed to stop a free falling car.
Car safeties
Elevator hoistway enclosures usually are required to be a fire-rated assembly with a ___ or ___ hour rating depending on the height of the building.
1 or 2 hour rating
Elevator and stair shafts are built early in the construction process, and often use ____ walls.
Shear walls
When used as a means of egress, an elevators shaft must be equipped with ____ and ____ suitable to the height of the structure.
Safety lights and fire ratings
A building with _______elevators may contain all ——- in a single hoistway. ______ elevators must have a minimum of two separate hoistways. Where more than one hoistway is provided, up to ___elevators may be located in one hoistway.
Three OR FEWER
All three
Four OR MORE
UP TO Four
In very tall buildings, express elevators are divided into zones, with each set serving a separate zone. A zone often includes ___consecutive floors.
15-20 consecutive floors
____ hoistways are used for express elevators that serve the upper elevator zones in tall buildings. if a single car hoistway is used, access doors will be provided for rescue purposes. Generally, these are placed every _____ floors
Blind hoistways
Every three floors
Elevator doors are designed to open and close automatically when the car stops at the floor where it has been summoned. The operations are sequenced in the following order.
-when the elevator stops at the correct level…
-as the car door opens…
-the car doors then…
-when the controller signals the doors to close…
-when the elevator stops at the correct level, the driving vane attached to the car door holds the door open.
-as the car door opens, the vane strikes a roller that releases the hoistway door lock
-the car doors then punch the hoistway doors completely open
-when the controller signals the doors to close, a weight forces the hoistway doors closed, the driving vane moves away from the roller and the hoistway doors are relocked.
A top exit is provided on all _______ elevators
Electric traction elevators
On hydraulic elevators, a top exit may be provided depending on whether the system is equipped with a _____.
Manual lowering valve
___ exits are required to have electrical interlocks to prevent car movement when the panels are open.
Side exits
The primary purpose of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems is to create and maintain a ____ for occupants
Comfortable environment
Historically, early forced-air systems provided only ____ through a ducted system. Buildings included features like openable windows and rooftop ____ to permit airflow through a building for ventilation and cooling.
Heat
Cupolas
Duct detectors are typically provided for fans with capacities exceeding _____ cubic feet per minute.
EXCEEDING 2000 cubic feet per minute
Air can be cleaned with ____, ___, or _____.
Filters, electrostatic equipment, or both
Building, mechanical, and fire codes contain many requirements for ducts, including allowable materials and the requirement for ___ and ____ to maintain the integrity of fire-rated assemblies.
Smoke and fire dampers
Heated and/or cool air may be provided without the use of ducted systems. In some cases, ___ spaces are used as a _________.
Interstitial spaces are used as a return-air plenum
The widely used NFPA___ contains requirements affecting horizontal and vertical HVAC ducts that penetrate a fire rated assembly or a smoke barrier.
NFPA 90A
With a few minor exceptions, the codes require that HVAC ducts be enclosed in a fire rated shaft enclosure. For example, NFPA __ requires that the enclosure be 1-hour rated for buildings ____ stories in height and 2 hour fire rated for buildings _________.
NFPA 90A
LESS THAN four stories
Four stories OR GREATER
The ___ are used to vary the airflow depending on the building needs.
Control dampers
The design of many modern buildings can make _____ methods difficult or impossible, especially in high rise construction. For example, some newer glazing types such as ____ glazing, may be very difficult to remove or ventilate.
Traditional ventilation
Hurricane glazing
To prevent the recirculating of smoke through the HVAC system and to facilitate removal of the smoke, some types of HVAC systems can be switched from normal operating mode to ______ mode.
Smoke control mode
The [manual smoke control] system can be controlled from a dedicated ____, the buildings main ___, or a ______.
Dedicated control panel
The buildings main control room
Firefighters smoke control station (FSCS)
Rooftop smoke and heat vents are typically required on the roofs of _____ buildings and in buildings with few _____ including industrial, storage, and mercantile buildings. Historically, smoke and heat vents were required in theaters over stages since the early part of the _____
Large area buildings
Buildings with few windows
Early part of the twentieth century
Vent types
These hatchways often open a minimum of ___ feet in either direction.
MINIMUM OF 4 feet in either direction
The depth of a curtain board will vary depending on the nature of the hazards within an occupancy, but should not be less than ___ percent of the ceiling height. Curtain boards should be spaced so that they are not farther apart than ____ times the ceiling height.
NOT BE LESS THAN twenty percent
NOT FARTHER APART THAN eight times
NFPA __ and the international fire code, contains the design methodology for determining the required vent area.
NFPA 204
One style of smoke control for stairways is the use of a ____ separated from a building corridor by a vestibule that is open to the atmosphere.
Smoke tower
A structural design that minimizes the use of space while still protecting stairways from the products of combustion is a _____
Pressurized stairwell
The ___uses a fan to supply air to a stairwell at a single point.
Single injection system
_______ use several discharge points along an air supply shaft running parallel to the stairwell from the supply fan.
Multiple injection systems
Calibration of pressurization systems
Modulation uses ___sensors that compare the stairwell and the interior of the building.
Input pressure sensors
High voltage equipment is defined as operating at ___ volts or higher; low voltage equipment operates at less than ___ volts.
600 volts OR HIGHER
LESS THAN 600 volts
The electric utility supplies many buildings with _____ volt services which can carry the same amount of energy in smaller wire and conduit when compared to traditional ___ volt services. The electricity is used at ___ volts by HVAC equipment, refrigeration, and other motors; and at ___ volts by light fixture ballasts. Dry transformers are located throughout the building to step down voltage to ___ volts for use in resources.
480/277 volt services
120/240 volt services
480 volts
277 volts
120 volts
When transformers are inside, codes require that the transformer rooms or vaults be enclosed in __ hour rated construction if not protected by automatic sprinklers or __ hour fire-rated construction with sprinklers.
3 hour
1 hour
Codes specify the minimum required fuel storage for diesel or gasoline driven generators. The amounts are stated in terms of the expected duration of operation which may vary from ___ to ___ hours. Operational requirements for hospitals and other critical facilities, however, may be up to ___ hours or longer.
Two to eight hours
UP TO 48 hours OR LONGER
Fuel storage should be located separately from the generator. An exception to the fuel storage separation is a day tank located in the same room or mounted directly on the generator. Fire codes typically limit the tank to ___ gallons for diesel fuel.
60 gallons
From a firefighting standpoint, roofs of buildings can be classified into three styles:
Flat, pitched, and curved
Low slope roofs have a slope of ___. Medium to high slope roofs have slopes of ___ to ___. (A slope of ____ equates to a 45 degree angle). Some structures, including churches and mansions, have roofs with slopes of ___ or greater.
UP TO 3/12
4/12 to 12/12
12/12
18/12 OR GREATER
The simplest pitched roof is the ___ roof that slopes in only one direction.
Shed roof
____roofs-common roof style that consists of two inclined surfaces that meet at their high side to form a “ridge”
Gable roofs
____roof- style that slopes in four directions and has a degree of slope similar to the gable roof.
Hip roof
____ roofs- slope in two directions, but there will be a break in the slope on each side. The space under —-roofs can be used as an attic or living space.
Gambrel roofs
____roof-has a break in the slope of the roof on all four sides. A —-roof constructed with a flat deck is sometimes known as a ______ or _____ roof. The___ style roof forms a projection beyond the building wall that creates a concealed space through which a fire can travel.
Mansard roof
Modern mansard or deck roof
____ roof-roof style that slopes in two directions-basically two shed roofs that meet at their low eaves.
Butterfly roof
_____roof-style designed to provide light and ventilation. —-were once commonly used on factory buildings. A raised central section of the roof extends several feet above the surrounding roof surface. The vertical sides of this —- section, which are normally openable windows, are known as “______”
Monitor roof
Clerestories
____roofs- a style also once commonly used on industrial buildings for light and ventilation. Ideally, the glass vertical sections should face north because northern light is more constant during the day and the glare of the sun can be avoided.
Sawtooth roofs
Modern ventilation and lighting systems have largely eliminated the need for ___ and ___ roofs.
Monitor and sawtooth
_____ roof surfaces take their form from the structural system used to support them.
Curved roof surfaces
Curved roofs are most frequently supported by ___ and ____.
Arches and bowstring trusses
A ____ roof can be used to cover a circular area.
Dome roof
A dome can be thought of as an arch rotated 360 degrees on its top point (________)
Keystone
The ____ is a special form of roof constructed from short pieces of material known as lamellas.
Lamella arch
Lamellas are most commonly made of wood and vary in thickness from __x___ to ___x____ and in lengths varying from ___ to ___ feet.
2 x 8 inches
3 x 16 inches
8 to 14 feet
The short lamellas are bolted together in a ___ pattern with a special plate known as a _______. The curvature of the lamella arch results from the ____ of the ends of the individual lamellas. Lamellas can form a ___ as well as a ____. If the ___ or ____ in a lamella dome are damaged to the point of failure, the entire structure will fail. Both ___ are required for this design to remain sound.
Diagonal pattern
Lamella washer
Beveling
Dome as well as an arch
Compression or tension rings
Both rings
A _____ is created using spherical triangulation
Geodesic dome
A ____ is frequently provided in buildings with pitched roofs to increase the available living space in an attic.
Dormer
Flat roofs may be supported by ___ and ____.
The simplest system of flat roof support uses ____ supported at either end by _______. The wood joists function as beams to support the roof deck just as floor beams support a floor system. Solid or laminated beams and columns may be used to support the wood roof joists.
Open web steel joists and steel beams
Ordinary wood joists
Load bearing walls
The traditional wood joisted roof uses solid ____ that tend to lose their strength _____ as they burn. This loss of strength results in the roofs becoming ___ or ___ before failure, especially with a ____ roof deck.
Solid wood joists
Gradually
Soft or spongy
Wood plank roof deck
The relatively thin plywood or oriented strand board used for roof sheathing can fail quickly without _______.
Prior warning
In modern practice, ____beams and ___ beams manufactured from plywood and wood truss joists are often used to support ___ roofs. Although these beams provide adequate strength, the thin __ portion of plywood I-beams renders them susceptible to early failure during a fire.
Box beams and I-beams
Flat roofs
Thin web portion
In addition, the _____ design of truss joists also permits the rapid spread of fire in directions ____ to the truss joist instead of simply along the long dimension of the member.
Open web design
Perpendicular
Type I
Fireproofing can be omitted from roof supports when the roof is located more than ____ feet above the floor in an____ occupancy.
MORE THAN 20 feet
Assembly occupancy
Deflection or vibration under the weight of firefighters may not signal imminent failure. However the deflection and vibration are an indication of ___________construction and firefighters should view such construction cautiously.
Lightweight roof construction
With the _____ roof, the main joists are located at the level of the ceiling and a framework is constructed above the main joists to support the roof deck.
Inverted roof
The design of the inverted roof creates a ______ that may be several feet in height between the ceiling and the roof deck.
Concealed space
____ roofs use inclined members to support some types of pitched roofs that are built on site utilizing dimensional lumber.
Conventionally framed roofs
Conventional framing components include:(4)
Rafters
Ridge boards
Collar ties
Ceiling joists and rafter ties
The most common roof types constructed with conventional framing include:(5)
Shed
Gable
Hip
Gambrel
Mansard
The basic design of a ____ roof results in an outward thrust against the walls, similar to the action of an arch. Ceiling or attic floor joists resist the outward thrust of the ——- if the architect desires to leave the underside of the roof exposed without joists, a structural _____ beam must be used to support the rafters.
Raftered roof
Structural ridge beam
Conventional roof framing is constructed using substantial materials. Fasteners common to this type of roof structure include:
___ and ___ at connection points
Heavy ____ or ____ in heavy timber construction
_______ hardware for exposed beams
Nails and screws at connection points
Heavy bolts or brackets in heavy timber construction
Architectural hardware for exposed beams
Rafters are commonly made of ___, although ___ beams and ____trusses can be found in contemporary _________ structures.
Supports are often substantial, with the ridge beam typically _____ size larger than the rafter. Wood rafters vary in size from ___x___ inches to ___x____ inches. They can be spaced from ___ to ___ inches apart depending on the span and design load.
Wood
Steel beams and trusses
Contemporary commercial structures
One size larger
2 x 4 inches to 2 x 14 inches
Spaced from 12 to 24 inches apart
_________ framing, also known as roof trusses, are a common roof support system. A ______ is arranged with all of the chords and diagonal members in the same plane.
Pre-engineered roof framing
Common truss
Pre-engineered roof framing
The joints used in trusses often are connected using ___________. In trusses of this type, the individual members would be wooden ___x___ or ___x___ and individual trusses would be spaced ___ to ____ feet apart center to center.
Nail type gusset plates
2 x 4 or 2 x 6
2 to 4 feet
____ trusses, which use a curved top chord, were once commonly used for roofs, and many remain in use. This assembly uses ___ connectors at all joints, except the ___ plates located at the ends of the truss. The top chord tries to straighten out and the bottom chord maintains the shape of the top chord through ____.
Bowstring trusses
Split-ring connectors
Heel plates
Through tension
Roof trusses are fabricated from ____ as well as ___. ___ and ___ trusses are the most common types used for pitched roofs. Both — and — trusses are usually fabricated ____ and ____ to the jobsite.
Steel as well as wood
Fink and Pratt trusses
Elsewhere and shipped
____ will often behave true to their construction materials in fire conditions. Materials used in —- include:(3)
Arches
Masonry
Laminated wood
Steel
The _____ of a roof is the portion of roof construction to which the roof covering or roll on roofing is applied. Through the —— the loads on the roof are transmitted to the roof supporting members.
Deck
The components of roof decks include:(4)
Sheathing
Roof planks or slabs
Purlins
Sometimes, as in ____ deck roofs, the roof deck serves as the roof support.
Concrete
_______decking is frequently used in applications where it serves as both the deck and the exterior roof covering.
Corrugated steel
From a construction standpoint, the deck material should be ____ and ____ so that any insulation or roof covering can be attached.
Clean and smooth
Wood panel decking may have a thickness of ____ on supports ___ inches on center.
1/2 inch
24 inches on center
Wood planks will have a minimum _____ nominal thickness.
1 inch
Corrugated steel used in roof decking ranges from ___gauge, the thinnest, to ___gauge, the thickest. The overall depth varies from ___ to ___. Corrugated steel decking can be used with a sheet of flat steel welded to the bottom to form _____ decking.
29 gauge
12 gauge
3/4 to 2 inches
Cellar decking
Roof deck materials
Gypsum has the advantage of being ______. Precast concrete may also be made —— with the inclusion of an appropriate ______. When cast in place concrete is used as a roof deck, the roof must be attachable to the deck. This attachment may be accommodated with wood nailing strips imbedded in the concrete at intervals of ____feet.
Nailable
Aggregate
3 feet
The usual practice in a multi story building with a flat roof is to use the same structural system for the ____ and ____ because it is more economical.
Roof and floors
The roof ____ provides the water-resistant barrier for the roof system.
Covering
The type of roof covering used depends on the ___ of the roof structure, the ____ of the roof, the local _____, and the ____ desired.
Form of the roof
Slope of the roof
Local climate
Appearance desired
Examples of conditions roofing materials must resist include:
Punctures from ___
____ from fog, salt air, smoke, and other pollutants.
Expansion and contraction from roof-top temperatures that can range from over ____F in the summer and below ___F in the winter
Hail
Corrosion
100F and 0F
A roof covering can consist of a single layer of material as in a ____ roof.
Corrugated steel roof
The ___ ____ is designed to reduce the diffusion of interior moisture into the insulation layer. It is used in climates where significant _____ ______ are common.
Vapor barrier
Temperature fluctuations
Vapor barriers consist of a continuous sheet of material resistant to the passage of water vapor including:(4)
Plastic
Aluminum foil
Kraft paper laminated with asphalt
Asphalt saturated roofing felt
The ____ ____ reduces heat loss through the roof. The ——— should have resistance to ____ ____ such as gouging, moisture decay, and fire.
Thermal insulation
Mechanical damage
Insulation can be poured or rigid. Poured insulation materials can be ______ or _____.
Portland cement of gypsum
The _____ used under a roof consists of waterproof material that keeps out rain and snow from the interior of the building. The three general categories of —— used are ____, _______, and ______.
Membrane
Built up membranes, single-ply membranes, and fluid applied membranes
____ membranes use several overlapping layers of roofing felt saturated with a bituminous material that may be either tar or asphalt. The roofing felt is usually supplied in rolls ___feet wide. The number of layers of roofing felt used varies, but ___ layers is a common design. Built up roofs usually last for ___ years if the manufacturers specifications are followed.
Built up membranes
3 feet wide
4 layers
20 years
A _____ membrane roof consists of a single membrane laid in sheets on the roof deck. The membrane material comes in sheets ___ or ___ feet wide and up to ____ feet long. The membranes are thin, typically ___ to ___ inches thick.
Single-ply membrane roof
10 or 20 feet wide and UP TO 200 feet long
.03 to .10 inches thick
Single-ply membranes are made from several materials. The most common is a synthetic rubber material, _________(EPDM). Other materials include ______(PVC) and ____(CPE).
Ethylene propylene diene monomer
Polyvinyl chloride
Chlorinated polyethylene
_____ membranes are attached to the roof by means of adhesives, gravel ballast, or mechanical fasteners.
Single ply
______ membranes are useful for buildings with curved roof surfaces such as domes that would be difficult to cover with other materials. The material is applied as a liquid and allowed to cure. Usually several coatings are applied. The materials used include: (4)
Fluid-applied membranes
Neoprene
Silicone
Polyurethane
Butyl rubber
The ____ layer permits the free movement of rain water to the roof drains.
Drainage layer
Depending on the ____ material used, the drainage layer can be the ___ layer in a single-ply roofing system, a drainage ____, or the ____ used in a built-up roofing system.
Membrane
Ballast
Drainage fabric
Aggregate
The ______ protects the roof system from mechanical abrasion. It can consist of the ___ in a built up roof system or ____ ____.
Wear course
Aggregate
Gravel ballast
Built up roofs that use gravel as the wear course are commonly known as _____ roofs. Roofs used for pedestrian traffic may use ___ ____ for the wear course
Tar and gravel roofs
Deck pavers
Materials may be shaped to resemble other roof coverings such as ____ shingles. These include ____ aluminum, ___-based materials, and ___ materials. Two broad categories used on pitched roofs are ___, and ____ roof coverings.
Wood shingles
Porcelainized aluminum
Mineral based materials
Shingles and metal roof coverings
Asphalt shingles are usually installed over an ____, which is a layer of roofing felt or synthetic covering.
Underlayment
____ tiles have preset nail holes
Slate
Modern asphalt shingles are ___ based. A mineral aggregate is embedded in the top surface to act as a wearing surface and to provide ____. Asphalt shingles are available in several sizes but the most common size is ____ x ___ inches.
Fiberglass
Color
12 x 36 inches
The difference between wood shingles and shakes is their method of ________. Wood ____ are thin, tapered slabs of wood that are sawn from pieces of a tree trunk. ____ are manually or machine split from the wood and are thicker than ——- wood shingles and shakes used in North America are made from ____, ____ , or _____ because of the resistance of these woods to decay.
Method of production
Wood shingles
Shakes
Red cedar, white cedar, or redwood
Wood shingles are installed with an overlap so only ____ of the surface of the shingle is actually exposed to the weather.
One-third
___, ___, and ___ tiles are non combustible and produce fire resistant roof coverings that have excellent resistance to flying brands.
Clay, slate and cement
____ is produced from hard rock that has a tendency to split along one plane. This characteristic permits roofing —- to be produced in smooth sheets as thin as ____ although it may be as thick as ___ inches.
Slate
1/16th inch
1-1/2 inch
Slate is a durable material and can have a life expectancy of ____ years. Slate is also a heavy material weighing ___ to ___ pounds per square foot.
150 years
8 to 36 pounds
___ tile is a dense, hard, and non absorbent material and can be used for flat or curved tiles. The curved —-tiles are known as ____tiles.
Clay
Mission tiles
_____tiles are made from Portland cement, aggregate and water.
Concrete tiles
Test procedures contained in NFPA ___ , also designated _____, evaluate the fire hazards of specific roof covering.
NFPA 256
ASTM E-108
NFPA 256/ASTM E-108
In the test, samples of roof coverings are attached to a wooden deck measuring ___ feet ___ inches by ___feet ___inches.
In order to be a third party listed product, materials are subject to ___ separate test procedures including:
3 feet 4 inches by 4 feet 4 inches
6 separate test procedures
intermittent flame exposure test
Burning brand test
Flying brand test
Rain test
Weathering test
Spread of flame test
NFPA 256/ ASTM E-108
The individual test procedures may be repeated from ___ to ___ times on different samples depending on the specific material being tested.
Two to fifteen times
NFPA 256/ ASTM E-108
Roof coverings that pass the required test procedures are classified __, __, or ____. The three classifications are based on the _____ of the fire the material can withstand.
A, B, or C
Severity of fire
NFPA 256/ ASTM E-108
Class A roof coverings are effective against a ____ fire exposure.
Class B roof coverings are effective against a ____ fire exposure.
Class C roof coverings are effective against a _____ fire exposure.
Severe
Moderate
Light
Reasons rain roofs may be installed over existing roofs include:
To cover ____roofing elements
To change the ___ of a building
To update ____design/appearance
______compared to replacing the original roof
Less ____ to the operations within a building
Deteriorated
Profile
Architectural
Cost-effective
Less disruptive
Green design roofs
The greatest benefit to this style of roof is the increased ___ _____ of the building
Increased energy efficiency
In addition to the photovoltaic and vegetative types explained below, green design roofs may include reflective systems known as ______ roofs and intentionally enhanced biodiversity known as ____ roofs. A significant hazard that many of these systems share is the ________ from the added elements.
Cool roofs
Brown roofs
Increased weight
A ____ system produces reliable clean energy that can be used in a wide range of applications, including within a buildings systems.
Photovoltaic
________ are typically shaped as panels and shingles, and can be installed on top of a roof or embedded in the roof covering.
Photovoltaic CELLS
Some _____ are designed as a standalone roofing system and are durable enough to be walked on. Photovoltaic ____ now include elements with a wide range of shapes, sizes, and thickness.
Solar shingles
Photovoltaic Systems
The energy feed from photovoltaic cells cannot be ___ or ___. Even when electrical power to the building is shut off and the cells are isolated from the buildings electrical system, the cells continue to ____ and ____ electric power.
Isolated or shut off
Store and generate
Photovoltaic roofs
One type of ______ is designed to be rolled out as a sheet on a flat membrane roof. In low light, it may look like a _______.
Solar panel
Maintenance walkway
A ____ can take several forms, ranging from the use of potted plants and flower boxes to a layer of earth with growing plants covering a large area of roof.
Green roof
The depth of soil required for a garden can range from ___ to ____. Depending on the depth of the soil the dead load can vary from ___pounds per square foot to ____ pounds per square foot.
A few inches to a few feet
20 pounds per square foot to 150 pounds per square foot
Another primary hazard of vegetative roofs is the added _____ if the vegetation is not properly hydrated or if ____ are improperly stored.
Fire load
Fertilizers
____ are small structures erected on the main roof of a building.
Penthouses
The primary purpose of ___ is to provide natural lighting to the interior of a building. Building codes restrict the materials used in ——- to ___, ____, and _____.
Skylights
Plastic
Wired glass
Tempered glass
Model building codes define a high rise building as being ___ feet in height. The fire protection definition:any building with ____ stories beyond the effective reach of fire equipment located at the street level.
MORE THAN 75 feet
Occupied
In the early part of the ____ century, high-rise buildings existed primarily in large cities. Within ____ years, high rises began to be constructed in many medium sized communities.
20th century
Within 50 years
Two developments that made high rise buildings possible and practical at the end of the ___century, were the use of ___ and ___.
End of the 19th century
Steel frame construction and elevators
The most significant and obvious feature of high rise buildings is their ____. Buildings exceeding ____ stories have become commonplace.
Height
EXCEEDING 60 stories
The earliest high rise buildings were rarely more than ___ or ___ stories. In the ___ and ___, several buildings were constructed exceeding ___ stories. For example, New York’s Empire State Building was constructed in ___ and has ___ stories.
Rarely more than 10 or 12 stories
1920s and 1930s
EXCEEDING 40 stories
1930 and has 102 stories
Early high rise buildings were usually limited to ___ or ___ use.
Residential or office use
In early high rise construction ___ systems were not a common utility.
HVAC systems
The first model building codes introduced in the ___ and ____ required required stairs and elevators to be ____.
1920s and 1930s
Enclosed
Often a high rise building will be constructed of a combination of ______ and a _____ frame. Tall buildings often have a _______core housing the elevator shafts with the remainder of the frame being _____.
Reinforced concrete and a protected steel frame
Reinforced concrete core
Steel
Typically, model building codes require ___ or ___ hour fire resistance for the structural frame of a high rise building, depending on the number of stories and occupancy, and ___ hour fire resistance for floor construction. In _____ construction the floors will be concrete slab. In ____ buildings, the floors will be lightweight structural concrete placed over corrugated steel.
2 or 3 hour
2 hour
Reinforced concrete construction
Steel frame buildings
Automatic sprinklers and communication systems were nut commonly provided until the ___quarter of the ____ century. In early high rise buildings, fire protection was usually provided only by _____.
Last quarter of the 20th century
Standpipe systems
____ are a crucial aspect of fire protection in high rise buildings. In buildings up to ___ or ____ stories, it might be possible to advance hoselines manually up stairwells.
Standpipes
UP TO nine or ten stories
The standpipe ___and___ are located within the stairwells to provide a protected location from which to advance a hoseline.
Risers and hose valves
NFPA ___ mandates the use of pressure reducing valves that can be set according to the jurisdictions needs. ______ should verify that these devices are properly set at the time of the original installation.
NFPA 14
Fire inspectors
Sprinkler and standpipe systems are typically supplied from the same ______. These systems will be supplied by ______ fire pumps located in the _____ of the building. In ____ zones a secondary on site water supply is required, usually in the form of a ______. Building codes have routinely required that high rise buildings be equipped with automatic sprinkler systems as well as standpipe systems since the mid _____.
Same vertical riser
One OR MORE fire pumps
Basement
Seismic zones
Storage tank
Mid 1970s
The sprinkler system in a high rise building includes individual _____ control valves.
Individual floor control valves
Taller high rise buildings may have a population of ____;the equivalent of a small ______. In a high rise building a system may include several _____(#) devices.
Several thousand people
Small town
Several hundred devices
Many modern high-rise buildings have _____ alarm systems that automatically sound an alert tone followed by voice instructions upon actuation of any detector, water flow device, or manual pull station. These voice evacuation systems are often zoned by _____. Some systems are programmed to evacuate only the ___,___,and___ rather than the entire building. These systems will also include a voice___capability to broadcast further instructions on a ___ or ___ basis.
Voice alarm systems
Zoned by floor
Floor of origin, the floor above, and the floor below
Voice override capability
Selective or all call basis
____devices in high rise buildings along with ___switches are monitored via the fire alarm system. Smoke detectors in ____ units are not monitored through the fire alarm system.
Detection devices
Water flow switches
Individual residential units
Local or state building codes often require some form of mechanical ______ removal from each floor. All model building codes require smokeproof exit enclosures in all stairs serving floors ______feet or higher. During the _____, model codes typically permitted the use of the building mechanical air handling system to accomplish smoke removal if the building was completely protected by automatic sprinklers.
Mechanical smoke removal
75 feet OR HIGHER
1970s
Model building codes require a room or area in a high-rise building to serve as a __________. The _______must approve the location. Typically, a Fire command center is located on the ____floor or level of fire department access. The room has minimal requirements, often including separation from the rest of the building where the with ____ hour fire rating. Many jurisdictions require that the room be accessed directly through an________ door.
Fire command center
Fire department
First floor or level of FD access
One-hour fire rating
Exterior door
Many high rise buildings, especially office buildings and hotels, are designed with a ____ floor plan.
Central core floor plan
When a structure has more than ________ dedicated elevator, they may be arranged in ______. The elevator code requires a ________ where the elevator hoistway or elevator room is protected by automatic sprinklers. This arrangement will shut down the _____ to the elevator before a sprinkler discharges water on the elevator equipment. This type of system may _____ an elevator between floors, and therefore, some jurisdictions will not allow automatic sprinklers to protect the spaces.
Banks
Shunt trip
Power
Stop
Only consider using elevators if the fire is above _________ floor. Stay below the ___ floor, according to SOPs
Never take an elevator below ________.
Do not travel above the ___ in an elevator that serves all floors.
Do not use elevators for occupant evacuation until _________.
Determine the location of the nearest ______ in relation to the elevator
ABOVE the 5th floor
Fire floor
Below ground level
Fire floor
The fire is under control
Protected stairs
Codes contain mandatory provisions for the recall(phase ___operation) of all passenger elevators with vertical travel greater than ___ feet in the event of a fire. ——operation can be triggered by the following:
-activation of automatic ____detectors
-activation of automatic____alarms
Activation of ____switch in the terminal floor lobby.
Phase I operation
GREATER THAN 25 feet
Automatic smoke detectors
Automatic sprinkler water flow alarms
Manual keyed switch
Phase __ operation is designed to prevent the deaths of civilians who may find themselves in an elevator that is called to the fire floor, as happened in high-rise fires in the ______. Phase __operation automatically stops all the cars that serve the fire floor if they are moving away from their terminal floor (the lobby). It also causes the cars to return nonstop to the lobby, or other designated level if the alarm originated from the lobby.
Phase I
1970s
Phase I
The requirement for recall does not apply to ____ elevators.
Freight
The elevator control and information panel is usually located _____ to the elevator bank and can indicate whether anyone maybe trapped. Recalling elevators via Phase ___ operation opens the car doors and keep them open when the car reaches the recall floor. During Phase ___ operation, the elevator cars ____ and _______buttons are rendered inoperative so the car occupants who may be unaware of the fire or emergency cannot stop the car anywhere but at the terminal floor.
Adjacent to the elevator bank
Phase I x2
Emergency stop and floor selection buttons
Phase __ operation is designed to override the recall feature to permit firefighters to use the elevators after they arrive on the scene. Model codes specify that all new elevators must be equipped for Phase __ operation. Typically to activate Phase __operation, a firefighter must insert a key in a _____position switch within a car to place that particular car in fire service.
Phase II
Three position switch
The _______ safety, which prevents the doors from closing if there is a person or smoke in the doorway, is disabled during Phase___ operations to allow the doors to be closed and the car moved if it inadvertently stops at a smoke-filled floor. The _______ button that was inoperable in Phase 1 should be operable during Phase 2.
Electric eye safety
Phase II
Emergency stop button
Limited or controlled access buildings
Upper floors should have emergency access openings on ____ or more sides in the upper floors. These openings must be readily ___ and ____ from both the exterior and interior ,and they must be sized for ___ and ___ operations.
Two OR MORE sides
Readily identifiable and operable
Rescue and ventilation operations
Underground buildings may have occupancy areas ___ feet or more lower than their primary exit. Older underground buildings were usually accessed _____ from ground level. Some modern underground buildings are being built into the side of hills with the primary access being ______
30 feet OR MORE LOWER
Vertically
Horizontally
Probably the greatest single challenge in controlling fires in underground buildings comes from the difficulty in _______ and _________.
Ventilating heat and smoke
Evacuation of occupants from underground locations is ____ difficult than in high rise buildings. Smokeproof enclosures are now required for buildings with levels more than ___feet below the level of exit discharge. The maximum available fire resistant protection is typically ___hours therefore fires exceeding___hours are a serious threat.
More difficult
MORE THAN 30 feet below
4 hours x2
One typical requirement is that the underground portion of the building be of __________construction. Where buildings have floor levels ___ feet below the level of exit discharge, separation of each level into ____ approximately equal sized compartments may be required. Each compartment will be provided with ____stair and access into the other compartment.
Fire resistive construction
MORE THAN 60 feet
Two
AT LEAST one stair and access
A membrane structure has an exterior skin of thin waterproof fabric; often ____-coated ___ material.
Vinyl coated polyester material
The most significant advantage to a membrane structure is the ability to provide a _____, ________ interior space.
Large, unobstructed
Air ____ structures feature a covered space with a fully open floor plan. Air____ membrane domes may be used for seasonal pop up shops or as temporary structures used for weather protection while constructing a building inside the membrane structure.
Air-Inflated structures
Air ____ buildings use a membrane that weighs only a few ounces per square foot for the building skin. Because air ___structures do not expose occupants to the supporting pressure, they may use a membrane that is heavier.
Air supported buildings
Air inflated structures
______ structures are supported by external cables fastened to masts. The structural supports of this type of construction resemble the organization found in a ______.
Cable membrane structures
Suspension bridge
_____structures feature a rigid frame with a tensioned membrane covering, usually with internal columns.
Frame membrane structures
Covered mall buildings
Codes now require fire department hose outlets in____, at ___entrances to the mall, and at entrances from the mall to ____ and _____.
Stairs
Major entrances
Corridors and passageways
Shopping malls are constructed in various sizes and configurations, and typically include ___ to ___ levels. When they contain more than ___ level(s), covered malls will have multiple openings between the levels. Building codes require that mall walkways be a minimum of ____ feet wide. Malls are usually designed with one or more large, well known, perimeter stores that are known as ____stores.
One to three levels
MORE THAN one level
MINIMUM OF 20 feet wide
Anchor stores
Codes require individual stores within a shopping mall to have ____ hour fire resistive separations from each other, but they do not require that individual storefronts are separated from the mall itself.
1 hour
Current codes have eliminated a requirement for smoke control systems in ___story shopping malls; however, a smoke control system may be required in covered mall buildings with ____ or more stories. Historically, most codes required a smoke control system in all covered mall buildings, regardless of number of stories.
One story
Three OR MORE stories
The automatic sprinkler industry developed _____sprinklers with a low profile and tamper resistance.
Institutional sprinklers
Functionally a _____ is a large vertical opening extending through _____ or more floors of a building that is not used for building services such as enclosed stairs, elevators, or building utilities.
Atrium
Two OR MORE
Typically model code requirements for atriums include automatic sprinkler protection. Automatic sprinklers may only be required for those floors that the atrium connects. The building codes have a basic requirement that an atrium be enclosed with ___hour fire rated construction or a combination of ___ and ____. However, codes usually make provision for elimination of the —-hour enclosure for up to ____stories or more when certain conditions are met.
1 hour
Glass and automatic sprinklers
UP TO three stories OR MORE
Some codes now waive the requirements for sprinklers where the ceilings of atriums are more than ___ feet above the floor.
MORE THAN 55 feet
____ can be defined as an event that produces a rapid release of energy. This sudden release of energy produces outward pressures, often referred to as ________.
An explosion
Blast waves
Structural damage from an explosion can be mitigated through ____ or ____ the forces. The maximum pressure reached during an explosion may exceed _____time the atmospheric pressure.
Containment or venting the forces
EXCEED ten times
Ideally, explosion vent panels should not weigh more than ___ pounds per square foot. Several different materials such as ___ or ____, are often used for explosion vents in industrial buildings.
NOT WEIGH MORE THAN 3 pounds per square foot
Corrugated steel or aluminum sheets
Types of explosion vents include (5)
Louvered openings
Hangar type doors
Wall panels windows
Roof vents
The required explosion vent area varies based on the size and strength of the _____, the expected ____ of the potential explosion, and the type of ____. Determining the actual vent area therefore requires an _________
Structure
Forces
Vent
Engineering analysis
An __________ for a stairway serving as an accessible means of egress can be located within the stairway on a landing, or near the stairway in an adjacent vestibule.
Area of refuge
Generally, the area of refuge is designed to accommodate _____ or ___ wheelchairs, depending on the occupant ____ served.
One or two
Occupant load served
Areas of refuge must be provided with some type of __________ system connected to a constantly attended location. This system must be designed to accommodate persons with any type of ___________. Also, areas of refuge must be well ___________from the exterior of the space, and provided on the interior with adequate ___________on the use of the space and the communication system.
Two-way communication system
Disability
Well identified adequate instructions
Warehouses may have multiple rows of racks wider than ____ or with aisles narrower than ____.
WIDER THAN 12 feet
NARROWER THAN 3.5 feet
Storage racks can range from a total height of ___feet to ______ feet
12 feet to AN EXCESS OF 100 feet
Rack storage
Newer ceiling mounted sprinkler technology includes sprinklers that can operate in _____mode and ___mode.
Control mode and suppression mode
A fundamental fire concern with type ____ construction is the combustible concealed spaces that are created between the floor and ceiling joists and in between studs in partition walls when they are covered with interior finish materials. Concealed spaces in type—— construction must contain appropriate ______.
Type III
Fire stops
The ______ may also regulate the operation of the dampers.
The local mechanical code
____ function as the primary sheltering element for the interior of a building.
Roofs
A _____ is a waterproof covering for a building.
A roof
Storage racks are arranged with several _____tiers.
Horizontal
The use of ________ is the most common characteristic of unprotected, noncombustible construction
Unprotected steel
— Ingredients or chemicals added to con- crete mix to produce concrete with specific characteristics.
— Branch of philosophy dealing with the na- ture of beauty, art, and taste.
Aftershock – A smaller earthquake that occurs in the same area and similar time frame as a larger earthquake.
— Particulate material used in construction to provide a stable bedding or reinforce a composition ma- terial. Used as an extender in concrete. Can be graded into coarse and fine grain sizes and material types in- cluding sand, gravel, stone, etc.
— Membrane structure that uses air pressure to develop its initial shape, but may not use air pressure throughout the entire, high profile, occu- pancy: enclosed columns or tubes may be inflated to hold the shape of the structure. This type of structure is often intended to be temporary or movable.
— Membrane structure that is fully or partially held up by interior air pressure. This type of occupancy often has a wider footprint than air- inflated structures, and may be secured in place with rigid lower walls and cables. This type of structure may be maintained in place over a long duration.
Admixture
Aesthetics
Aggregate
Air-Inflated Structure
Air-Supported Structure
— Substance or mixture composed of two or more metals (or a metal and nonmetallic elements) fused to- gether and dissolved into each other to enhance the properties or usefulness of the base metal.
— Electrical circuit in which the current can move through the circuit in both directions and the flow can be constantly reversing.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) — Voluntary standards-setting organization that sets guidelines on characteristics and performance of materi- als, products, systems and services; for example, the quality of concrete or the flammability of interior finishes.
- — Federal statute intended to remove barri- ers, physical and otherwise, that limit access by individuals with disabilities.
— High-temperature luminous electric discharge across a gap or through a medium such as charred insulation.
Alloy
Alternating Current (AC) Circuit
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990
Arc
— Curved structural member in which the interior stresses are primarily compressive. Arches develop in- clined reactions at their supports.
— (1) Space protected from fire in the nor- mal means of egress either by an approved sprinkler system, separation from other spaces within the same building by smokeproof walls, or location in an adjacent building. (2) Area where persons who are unable to use stairs can temporarily wait for instructions or assistance during an emergency building evacuation.
— Standard test used to measure the surface burning characteristics of various materials. Also known as Steiner Tunnel Test or Tunnel Test.
— (1) Upper chamber of the left or right side of the heart. (2) Open area in the center of a building, extending through two or more stories, similar to a courtyard but usually covered by a skylight, to allow natural light and ventilation to interior rooms.
— An organiza- tion, office, or individual responsible for enforcing the requirements of a code or standard, or approving equip- ment, materials, an installation, or a procedure.
— Load applied to the center of the cross-sec- tion of a member and perpendicular to that cross-section. It can be either tensile or compressive, and creates uni- form stresses across the cross-section of the material.
Arch
Area of Refuge
ASTM E-84
Atrium
Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ)
Axial Load
— Type of structural fram- ing used in some single-story and multistory wood frame buildings; studs are continuous from the foundation to the roof, and there may be no fire stops between the studs.
— Open web truss constructed entirely of steel, with steel bars used as the web members.
— A system of structural elements that create a joint between a building and its base to minimize seismic force effects on the main structure. The type of system may be customized to the type of seismic forces expected in an area.
— Structural component loaded perpendicular to its length. Primarily resists bending stress characterized by compression in the top portion and tension in the bot- tom portion.
— Common type of structure that uses the walls of a building to support spanning ele- ments such as beams, trusses, and pre-cast concrete slabs.
Balloon Frame construction
Bar joist
Base Isolation
Beam
Bearing Wall Structures
— A reaction within a structural com- ponent that opposes a vertical load. When the bending moment is exceeded, the component will fail. Bending stress can be calculated from the bending moment.
— Compressive and tensile stresses in a beam. When the stresses are not held in equilibrium, the beam will bend and ultimately fail. Bending stresses are calculated from the Bending Moment.
— Used for express elevators that serve only upper floors of tall buildings. There are no entrances to the shaft on floors between the main entrance and the lowest floor served.
— Group of people, usually five to seven, with experience in fire prevention, building con- struction, and/or code enforcement, who are legally constituted to arbitrate differences of opinion between fire inspectors and building officials, property owners, occupants or builders.
— Lightweight truss design noted by the bow shape, or curve, of the top chord.
Bending Moment
Bending Stress
Blind Hoistway
Board of Appeals
Bowstring Truss
— Amount of heat energy re- quired to raise the temperature of 1lb (0.5 kg) of water 1°F (.55 °C). 1 Btu = 1.055 kilo joules (kJ).
— A set of rules developed by a standards organization and adopted as law by a governmental body to regulate the minimum requirements for construction, renovation, and maintenance of buildings.
— Authorization issued from the appro- priate authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) before any new construction, addition, renovation, alteration, or demoli- tion of buildings or structures occurs.
— Connection between two parts made by simply securing ends surfaces together without addi- tional shaping at the ends; a simple but weak joint.
— Structure projecting from a wall, designed to receive lateral pressure action at a particular point.
British Thermal Unit (Btu)
Building Code
Building Permit
Butt Joint
Buttress
— Freestanding structure that uses suspension cables for support. Also known as Cable Covered Structure.
— Flexible structural members designed to with- stand tension stresses. Commonly used to support roofs, brace tents, and restrain pneumatic structures.
— Protective sleeve used to keep water out of an excavation for a pier.
— Process of driving free and chemically bound water out of gypsum; also describes chemical and physical changes to the gypsum component itself.
Cable Membrane Structure
Cables
Caisson
Calcination
— Process that heats a substance to a high tem- perature but below the melting or fusing point, causing loss of moisture, reduction or oxidation, and decomposi- tion of carbonates and other compounds.
— Projecting beam or slab supported at one end.
— Broad top surface of a column or pilaster, de- signed to spread the load held by a column.
— Common type of concrete construction. Refers to concrete that is poured into forms as a liquid and assumes the shape of the form in the posi- tion and location it will be used.
— Any adhesive material or variety of materials which can be made into a paste with adhesive and cohe- sive properties to bond inert aggregate materials into a solid mass by chemical hardening. For example, portland cement is combined with sand and/or other aggregates and water to produce mortar or concrete.
Calcined
Cantilever
Capital
Cast-in-Place Concrete
Cement
— Top or bottom longitudinal member of a truss; main members of trusses, as distinguished from diagonals.
— Exterior finish or skin.
— Energy sources that meet the needs of current consumers without compromising future re- sources. Also known as Sustainable Energy.
— Commercial and drawing steels; shaped after cooling below its recrystallization temperature by being passed through a series of rollers to reduce the thickness incrementally.
— Horizontal roof framing member in the top third of the framing system; braces the roof framing against the uplift of wind.
Chord
Cladding
Clean Energy
Cold Rolled Steel (CRS)
Collar Tie
— Vertical member designed to support an axial load and compressive stresses.
— Square pad of concrete that supports a column. Footings of decorative columns are often above the bearing surface.
— Truss structure with the chords and diagonal members arranged in parallel planes. Also known as Monoplane Truss.
— Any enclosed space without internal fire barriers.
— Series of barriers designed to keep flames, smoke, and heat from spreading between spaces.
Column
Column Footing
Common Truss
Compartment
Compartmentation
— Stairwell pressurization system that can modulate the pressure in the stairwell in relation to the interior of the building, or vent excess pressure.
— Produced with parallel external face veneers bonded to a core of reconstituted fibers. Also known as Sandwich Panel
— Vertical and/or horizontal forces that push the mass of a material together; for example,
the force exerted on the top chord of a truss.
— Load that is applied at one point or over a small area.
— Strong, hard building material produced from a mixture of portland cement and an aggregate filler/binder to which water is added to form a slurry that sets into a rigid building material.
Compensated System
Composite Panels
Compression
Concentrated Load
Concrete
— Large rectangular brick used in con- struction; the most common type is the hollow concrete block. Also known as Concrete Masonry Units (CMU).
— Wall construc- tion system that includes one wythe of concrete blocks with a brick wythe attached to the outside.
— Large, uncontrollable fire covering a considerable area and crossing fire barriers such as streets and waterways; usually involves buildings in more than one block and causes a substantial fire loss. Forest fires can also be considered conflagrations.
— Deliberate demoli- tion process that uses large machinery and equipment to reduce an entire structure to ground level.
— Transfer of heat by the movement of heated fluids or gases, usually in an upward direction.
Concrete Block
Concrete Block Brick Faced (CBBF)
Conflagration
Controlled Collapse Demolition
Convection
— Stair that usually connects two floors in a multistory building.
— Roofing system con- structed on site; often uses dimensional lumber and nails/screws but can also use preengineered components.
— Rooftop or independent unit that ejects waste heat into the atmosphere to lower the temperature in a system. Commonly used in HVAC systems.
— Bracket or ledge made of stone, wood, brick, or other building material projecting from the face of a wall or column used to support a beam, cornice, or arch.
— Use of a corbel to provide additional sup- port for an arch.
Convenience Stair
Conventionally Framed Roofs
Cooling Tower
Corbel
Corbelling
— Concealed space near the eave of a building; usually overhanging the area adjacent to exterior walls.
— Formed into ridges or grooves; serrated.
— Horizontal layer of individual masonry units.
— Measurement of one component’s tested performance against a set stan- dard or criteria, not against similar components or assemblies. Similar to Criterion-Referenced Assessment.
— Theoretical slice of a 3-dimensional structural component to enable area and stress calculations.
Cornice
Corrugated
Course
Criterion-Referenced Testing (CRT)
Cross-Section
— A type of rooftop projection historically used for ventilation and lighting, and modernly added for aesthetics.
— Nonload-bearing exterior wall attached to the outside of a building with a rigid steel frame. Usually the front exterior wall of a building intended to provide a certain appearance.
— Structural element designed to control vibration from resonance.
— Weight of the structure, structural mem- bers, building components, and any other features permanently attached to the building that are constant and immobile.
— Guidelines applied to basic units of a project that cause the items to work together as a uni- fied, completely finished item that serves a purpose within established parameters. Units can include the ma- terials, concepts, and setting.
Cupola
Curtain Wall
Damping Mechanism
Dead Load
Design Principles
— The use of a single organization to both design and build a facility to minimize risks for the proj- ect owner. May also refer to a firm specializing in design-build.
— Process of removing water from a vessel or building.
— Material that is a poor conductor of electric- ity, usually applied to tools that are used to handle energized electrical wires or equipment.
— Lumber with standard, nomi- nal measurements for use in building construction. —— lumber is also available in rough, green components with actual dimensions that match the nominal dimensions.
— Electrical circuit in which the current moves through the circuit in only one direction.
Design-Build
Dewatering
Dielectric
Dimensional Lumber
— Mechanical device that closes a door. Also known as Self-Closing Door.
— Mechanical device that holds a door open and releases it upon a signal. Mechanism may be a fusible link that releases under fire conditions, or an electromagnet connected to a smoke detector. Also known as Door Holder.
— Noncombustible barriers or dividers hung from the ceiling in large open areas that are de- signed to minimize the mushrooming effect of heat and smoke and impede the flow of heat. Also known as Curtain Boards and Draft Stops.
— Type of concrete floor construction in which the portion of the floor above each column is dropped below the bottom level of the rest of the slab, in- creasing the floor thickness at the column.
— A measure of a metal’s ability to be drawn, hammered thin, or rolled into shapes without breaking. The high ductility of steel makes it very versatile for use in constructing buildings.
Door Closer
Door Hold-Open Device
Draft Curtains
Drop Panel
Ductility
— Small freight elevators that carry items, not people, and generally have a small weight and size capacity.
— Loads that involve motion, including impact from wind, falling objects, and vibration. Also known as Shock Loading.
— A sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that creates seismic forces that shake and some- times disrupt the ground. Earthquakes are associated with volcanic activity, landslides, and tsunamis.
— Load perpendicular to the cross-sec- tion of the structural member, but which does not pass through the center of the cross-section. An eccentric load creates stresses that vary across the cross-section and may be both tensile and compressive.
— Generic term for rubber-like materials in- cluding natural rubber, butyl rubber, neoprene, and silicone rubber used in facepiece seals, low-pressure hoses, and similar SCBA components.
Dumbwaiter
Dynamic Load
Earthquake
Eccentric Load
Elastomer
— Mechanical system that travels vertically and is used to transport people and items in a multistory building.
— Depression at the base of an elevator hoistway that contains equipment and maintenance access.
— A material manufactured by bond- ing pieces of wood with glue or resin to form finished shapes.
— Condition of balance that exists when a structural system is capable of supporting the applied load.
— Belt-driven moving stairs that move in one direction at a fixed rate of speed.
Elevator
Elevator Pit
Engineered Wood
Equilibrium
Escalator
— Ventilation system designed to re- move stale air, smoke, vapors, or other airborne contaminants from an area.
— Closed-cell foam used for a growing number of purposes including building in- sulation. Properties include rigidity, low weight, and formability.
— Flexible joint in concrete used to pre- vent cracking or breaking because of expansion and contraction due to temperature changes.
— Structure surfaces or separate parts of the fireground to which a fire or products of combustion could spread.
— Exterior cladding or covering systems composed of an adhesively or mechanically fastened foam insulation board, reinforcing mesh, a base coat, and an outer finish coat. Also known as Synthetic Stucco.
— Stairs separated from the interior of a building by walls.
Exhaust System
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)
Expansion Joint
Exposure
Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS)
Exterior Stairs
— Fascia added to some buildings with flat roofs to create the appearance of a mansard roof. Also known as False Roof or Fascia.
— Ratio of the failure point of a material to the maximum design stress; indicates the strength of a structure beyond the expected or actual loads.
— Point at which material ceases to per- form satisfactorily; depending on the application, this can involve breaking, permanent deformation, excessive deflection, or vibration.
— (1) Flat horizontal or vertical board located at the outer face of a cornice. (2) Broad flat surface over a storefront or below a cornice.
— Strategy to reduce the over- all time for completion of a project by merging the design and construction phases. Often used in conjunction with design-build.
Facade
Factor of Safety
Failure Point
Fascia
Fast-Track Construction
— Area of discontinuity in the Earth’s crust associ- ated with movement by tectonic plates.
— Agency within the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) that is responsible for emergency preparedness, mitigation, and response activities for events including natural, technological, and attack-related emergencies.
— Connection between two parts made by cutting complementary mating parts, and then securing the joint with glue.
— One of a set of sections in a building sepa- rated from each other by fire-resistant partitions.
— Angled cut made at the end of a wood joist or wood beam that rests in a masonry wall to allow the beam to fall away freely from the wall in case of failure of the beam. This helps prevent the beam from acting as a lever to push against the masonry.
Fault
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Finger Joint
Fire Area
Fire Cut
— Device that automatically restricts the flow of air through all or part of an air-handling system; usually activated by the building’s fire alarm signaling system.
— Point at which the fire department can connect into a sprinkler or stand- pipe system to boost the water pressure and flow in the system. This connection consists of a clappered siamese with two or more 21⁄2-inch (65 mm) intakes or one large- diameter (4-inch [100 mm] or larger) intake. Also known as Fire Department Sprinkler Connection.
— Specially constructed, tested, and approved fire-rated assembly designed and installed to prevent fire spread by automatically sealing an opening in a fire wall to block the spread of fire.
— Means of escaping from a building in case of fire; usually an interior or exterior stairway or slide, in- dependently supported and made of fire-resistive material.
— The amount of water required to extinguish a fire in a timely manner.
Fire Damper
Fire Department Connection (FDC)
Fire Door
Fire Escape
Fire Flow
— Maximum amount of heat that can be re- leased if all fuel in a given area is consumed; expressed in pounds per square foot and obtained by dividing the amount of fuel present by the floor area. Used as a mea- sure of the potential heat release of a fire within a compartment. Similar to Fuel Load and Heat of Combustion.
— Fire barrier that extends from one floor to the bottom of the floor above or to the underside of a fire-rated ceiling assembly; provides a lower level of pro- tection than a fire wall. An example is a one-hour rated corridor wall.
— The ability of a structural assembly or material to maintain its load-bearing ability under fire conditions.
— Rating assigned to a material or assembly after standardized testing by an independent testing organization; identifies the amount of time a ma- terial or assembly will resist a typical fire, as measured on a standard time-temperature curve.
— Any substance, except plain water, that when applied to another material or substance will re- duce the flammability of fuels or slow their rate of combustion by chemical or physical action.
— The movement of fire from one material (source) to another (exposure). May occur within a com- partment or across a break.
Fire Load
Fire Partition
Fire Resistance
Fire Resistance Rating
Fire Retardant
Fire Spread
— Solid materials, such as wood blocks, used to prevent or limit the vertical and horizontal spread of fire and the products of combustion; installed in hollow walls or floors, above false ceilings, in penetrations for plumb- ing or electrical installations, in penetrations of a fire-rated assembly, or in cocklofts and crawl spaces.
— Fire rated wall with a specified degree of fire resistance, built of fire-resistive materials and usually ex- tending from the foundation up to and through the roof of a building that is designed to limit the spread of a fire within a structure or between adjacent structures.
— Interface between the smoke management system and the fire re- sponse forces.
— Movement of a flame away from the ig- nition source.
— (1) Numerical rating assigned to a material based on the speed and extent to which flame travels over its surface. (2) Measurement of the propaga- tion of flame on the surface of materials or their assemblies as determined by recognized standard tests.
— Single or paired external ridges or rims on a beam that do most of the work of supporting a load.
Fire Stop
Fire Wall
Firefighter’s Smoke Control Station (FSCS)
Flame Spread
Flame Spread Rating
Flange
— Plain floor slab about 8 inches (200 mm) thick that rests on columns spaced up to 22 feet (6.5 m) apart and depends on diagonal and orthogonal patterns of reinforcing bars for structural support because the slab lacks beams; simplest and most economical floor system.
— Construction technique using concrete slabs supported by concrete columns.
— Foundation for which the vol- ume of earth excavated will approximately equal the weight of the building supported. Thus, the total weight supported by the soil beneath the foundation remains about the same, and settlement is minimized because of the weight of the building.
— Part of the building in contact with the bear- ing soil. Footings are thicker (deeper) than the column or foundation wall and are often embedded below the sur- face of the soil to rest on bedrock.
— 1) Simple measure of weight, usually expressed in pounds (kilograms). 2) In physics: Any interaction that may change the motion of an object.
— A building heating and cooling system that uses air as the heat transfer medium.
— Vertical element of a foundation; rests on the foundation footers. May be full-story height as in a basement, or partial height. Materials often in- clude poured concrete, or mortar elements such as block, brick, or stone.
Flat Plate
Flat-Slab Concrete Frame
Floating Foundation
Footing
Force
Forced–Air System
Foundation Wall
— Internal system of structural supports within a building.
— Structure supported pri- marily by a frame or skeleton rather than by load-bearing walls. Also known as Frame Covered Structure.
— Self-supporting fire walls inde- pendent of the structure’s frame. Must resist a lateral load of 5 pounds per square foot (.25 kPa per square meter).
— Common depth at which ground water in soil will freeze. Influential variables include climate, soil properties, and nearby heat sources.
— Total quantity of fuel (combustible material) in a compartment; can include structural elements, inte- rior finish, and trim. Expressed in heat units of the equivalent weight in wood. Also known as Fuel Loading.
— Connecting link device that fuses or melts when exposed to fire temperatures; used to activate individual elements in active and passive fire suppres- sion systems. Benefits include: inexpensive, rugged, easy to maintain. Disadvantages include: slower to activate than automated systems.
Frame
Frame Membrane Structure
Freestanding Walls
Frost Line
Fuel Load
Fusible Link
— Portable device for generating auxiliary electrical power; generators are powered by gasoline or diesel engines and typically have 110- and/or 220-volt ca- pacity outlets.
— Process of restoring rundown or dete- riorated properties by more affluent people, often displacing poorer residents.
— Computer software application that relates physical features on the earth to a database to be used for mapping and analysis. The system captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that refers to or is linked to a location.
— Glass or thermoplastic panel in a wall or other barrier that allows light to pass through.
— (1) Wooden structural mem- ber composed of many relatively short pieces of lumber glued and laminated together under pressure to form a long, extremely strong beam. (2) Term used to describe wood members produced by joining small, flat strips of wood together with glue. Also known as Glued-Laminated Beam or Glulam Beam.
— Direction of growth of a tree. Loads aligned per- pendicular to the grain are more sturdily supported; lumber will split more easily when cut parallel to the grain.
— Force acting to draw an object toward the earth’s center; force is equal to the object’s weight.
Generator
Gentrification
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Glazing
Glue-Laminated Beam
Grain
Gravity (G)
— Incorporation of environmental princi- ples including energy efficiency and environmentally friendly building materials into design and construction.
— Roof of a building that is partially or com- pletely covered with vegetation and a growing medium, planted over waterproof roofing elements. Term can also indicate the presence of green design technology includ- ing photovoltaic systems and reflective surfaces.
— Footing consisting of layers of beams placed at right angles to each other and usually encased in concrete.
— A mixture of cement, aggregate, and water that hardens over time; used to embed reinforcement materi- als in masonry walls. Similar to mortar.
— Metal or wooden plates used to connect and strengthen the joints of two or more separate compo- nents (such as metal or wooden truss components or roof or floor components) into a load-bearing unit.
Green Design
Green Roof
Grillage Footing
Grout
Gusset Plates
— General term for small pieces of equipment made of metal, including ancillary equipment affixed to another medium to aid the use of the primary tool. Fire door hardware includes: door knobs, hinges, and door closure devices.
— Total amount of thermal energy (heat) that could be generated by the combustion (oxida- tion) reaction if a fuel were completely burned. The heat of combustion is measured in British Thermal Units (Btu) per pound, kilojoules per gram, or Megajoules per kilogram.
— During the hardening of concrete, heat is given off by the chemical process.
— Total amount of heat re- leased per unit time. The heat release rate is typically measured in kilowatts (kW) or Megawatts(MW) of output.
— Flow of heat from a hot substance to a cold substance; may be accomplished by convection, conduction, or radiation.
Hardware
Heat of Combustion
Heat of Hydration
Heat Release Rate (HRR)
Heat Transfer
— Mechanical system used to provide environ- mental control within a structure, and the equipment necessary to make it function; usually a single, integrated unit with a complex system of ducts throughout the building. Also known as Air-Handling System.
— Upward deformation of a building’s struc- tural elements
— Building that requires fire fight- ing on levels above the reach of the department’s equipment. Also known as High-Rise.
— The vertical shaft in which the elevator car travels; includes the elevator pit.
— Side-to-side, swaying motion.
— Any operation that requires the use of tools
or machines that may produce a source of ignition.
— Protective treatment for exterior windows designed to withstand hurricane conditions in- cluding high wind and impact.
— A building heating and cooling sys- tem that uses water as the heat-transfer medium.
— Ability of a substance to absorb moisture from the air.
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) System
Heaving
High-Rise Building
Hoistway
Horizontal Motion
Hot Work
Hurricane Glazing
Hydronic System
Hygroscopic
— Mechanism or initial energy source employed to initiate combustion, such as a spark that provides a means for the initiation of self-sustained combustion.
— Engineered wood joists with an “I” shaped cross section. Commonly used in modern roof and floor construction.
— Low profile sprinkler system and pendant used with concealed piping in correctional facilities and institutions where tampering of the system must be discouraged or prevented.
— Construction technique that uses hollow foam blocks with predetermined sizes and shapes. The blocks lock to- gether and are filled with concrete to form structural supports.
— Code that is dedicated to providing safety regulations for life safety, structural, and fire protection issues that occur through- out the life of a building.
Ignition Source
I-Joist
Institutional Sprinklers
Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) Construction
International Building Code® (IBC®)
— Organization that develops the International Building Code® (IBC®) and the International Fire Code® (IFC®), for city and state adoption. Was formed by the merger of the Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA) International, Inc., the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI). See Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA), International Building Code®(IBC®), International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), International Fire Code® (IFC®), and Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI).
— Coating or paintlike product that expands when exposed to the heat of a fire; creates an insulating barrier that protects the material underneath.
— Truss support system that is con- structed with a deep triangular portion projecting down instead of up, and the portions of a standard truss are un- der compression instead of tension.
— Horizontal structural members used to support a ceiling or floor. Drywall materials are nailed or screwed to the ceiling joists, and the subfloor is nailed or screwed to the floor joists.
— Energy possessed by a moving object because of its motion.
International Code Council (ICC)
Intumescent Coating
Inverted Truss
Joists
Kinetic Energy
— Special type of arch constructed of short pieces of wood called lamellas.
— Material made of wood strips and resin, shaped, and bonded with heat and/or pressure.
— Horizontal platform where a flight of stairs begins or ends.
— Sideways deformation of a building’s structural elements.
— Load that exerts a horizontal force against a structure. Calculated as a live load; includes seismic activity and soil pressure against vertical re- straints such as retaining walls and foundations.
— Horizontal framework member, espe- cially one attached to a beam side that supports the joists. Also known as Ribbon Board.
— Support for masonry over an opening; usually made of steel angles or other rolled shapes, singularly or in combination.
Lamella Arch
Laminated Wood
Landing
Lateral Displacement
Lateral Load
Ledger Board
Lintel
— Any of several petro- leum products, such as propane or butane, stored under pressure as a liquid.
— Refers to a device or material that has been tested by any of several testing laboratories (including the Underwriters’ Laboratories Factory Mutual System) and certified as having met minimum criteria.
— (1) Items within a building that are movable but are not included as a permanent part of the structure. (2) Force placed upon a structure by the addition of peo- ple, objects, or weather.
— Any effect that a structure must be designed to resist, including the forces of gravity, wind, earthquakes, or soil pressure.
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Listed
Live Load
Load
— Wall that supports itself, the weight of the roof, and/or other internal structural fram- ing components, such as the floor beams and trusses above it; used for structural support. Also known as Bearing Wall.
— A series of horizontal slats that are angled to permit easy ventilation in one direction of flow and re- stricted ventilation in the opposite direction. Louvers are commonly used in applications where the restrictive side blocks sunshine, rain, or products of combustion.
— Lengths of wood prepared for use in construc- tion; items are graded for strength and appearance.
— Elevator hoistway that in- cludes all components, including motors, mounted within the hoistway itself to eliminate the need for a machine room at the top of the hoistway. The elevator controls may be located remotely from the elevator system.
— Structural elements con- structed in a factory and shipped to the construction site.
Load-Bearing Wall
Louvers
Lumber
Machine Room-Less (MRL)
Manufactured Components
— Bricks, blocks, stones, and unreinforced and reinforced concrete products.
— Heat resistant construction adhesive that bonds with most materials; can be used as a fire retardant coating.
— Thick slab beneath the entire area of a building; thicker and more reinforced than a simple slab-on-grade foundation.
— Continuous and unobstructed path of exit travel from any point in a building or structure to a public way; consists of three separate and distinct parts: exit access, exit, and exit discharge. (Source: NFPA 101, Life Safety Code®).
— Usually refers to a suspended, in- sulating ceiling tile system.
Masonry
Mastics
Mat Slab Foundation
Means of Egress
Membrane Ceiling
— (1) Structure with an enclosing surface of a thin stretched flexible material. (2) Weather- resistant, flexible or semiflexible covering consisting of layers of materials over a supporting framework.
— Wood core door protected with gal- vanized sheet metal steel or other heavy metal exterior. Also known as Kalamein Door.
— Cement-like material that hardens over time. Used to bond individual masonry units together into a solid mass and transmit compressive forces between ma- sonry units.
— Stairwell pressurization system that uses an air supply shaft that discharges sup- ply air at a uniform rate along several points within the stairwell.
— Tendency of heat, smoke, and other products of combustion to rise until they encounter a horizontal obstruction; at this point they will spread lat- erally until they encounter vertical obstructions and begin to bank downward.
Membrane Structure
Metal-Clad Door
Mortar
Multiple-Injection System
Mushrooming
— Property of a material that allows it to ac- cept a fastener, such as a nail. Nailable materials include wood, gypsum, and some thin metals.
— Air pressure less than that of the surrounding atmosphere; a partial vacuum.
— Large scale test used to evaluate the perfor- mance of textile wall coverings under fire conditions. Older test, succeeded by NFPA 286. Similar to ASTM E-84.
— Large scale test used to evaluate the perfor- mance of textile wall coverings under fire conditions. Designed to accommodate materials that may not remain in place during ASTM E-84 testing. Also includes the ca- pacity of attaching materials to the ceiling. Newer test, preceded by NFPA 265. Similar to ASTM E-84.
— Actual dimensions of processed lumber do not match the nominal dimensions, within defined parameters. Historically, the two sets of dimensions were identical.
— Incapable of supporting combustion under normal circumstances.
— Wall, usually interior, that sup- ports only its own weight. These walls can be breached or removed without compromising the structural integrity of the building. Also known as Nonbearing Wall.
— Lightweight wood construction panel manufactured from wood chips, strands, wafers, or sawdust and a bonding agent such as glue or resin. Used as sheathing, reinforcement of structural elements, and sub-flooring. Includes OSB, particleboard, waferboard.
Nailability
Negative Pressure
NFPA 265
NFPA 286
Nominal Dimension of Lumber
Noncombustible
Nonload-Bearing Wall
Nonveneered Panel
— Building code classification based on the use to which owners or tenants put buildings or portions of buildings. Regulated by the various building and fire codes. Also known as Occupancy Classification.
— Wooden structural panel formed by gluing and compressing wood strands together under pressure. This material has largely re- placed plywood and planking in applications including roof decks, walls, and subfloors.
— Door that opens and closes above a large opening, such as in a warehouse or garage, and is usually of the rolling, hinged-panel, or slab type. Also known as Rolling (Overhead) Door.
— Air pressure above normal or atmo- spheric pressure.
Occupancy
Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
Overhead Door
Overpressure
— Portion of the exterior walls of a building that extends above the roof. A low wall at the edge of a roof.
— Wooden structural panel formed from wood particles and synthetic resins. Also known as Flakeboard, Chipboard, or Shavings board.
— Smoke control strategies that incorporate fixed components that provide protection against the spread of smoke and fire. Passive smoke con- trol components include fire doors, fire walls, fire stopping of barrier penetrations, and stair and elevator vestibules.
— Emergency operating mode for el- evators. Recalls the car to the terminal floor lobby or another floor as specified, and opens the doors.
— Emergency operating mode for el- evators. Allows emergency use of the elevator with certain safeguards and special functions.
Parapet Wall
Particleboard
Passive Smoke Control
Phase I Operation
Phase II Operation
— An arrangement of compo- nents that convey electrical power to an energy system by converting solar energy into direct current (DC) electricity.
— Demolition process that uses hand tools and machines to gradually decrease the height of the structure.
— Deep foundation type that uses beams mounted on concrete wedges/blocks to support loads. Similar to Caissons and Belled Piers.
— Rectangular masonry pillar that extends from the face of a wall to provide additional support for the wall. Decorative pilasters may not provide any support.
— Deep foundation type that uses beams used to support loads. Develop load-carrying ability either through friction with the surrounding soil or by being driven into contact with rock or a load-bearing soil layer.
Photovoltaic (PV) System
Piecemeal Demolition
Pier
Pilaster
Piles
— Concealed vertical channel in which pipes and other utility conduits are housed. Pipe chases that are not properly protected can be major contributors to the vertical spread of smoke and fire in a building. Also known as Chase.
— (1) Type of framing in which each floor is built as a separate platform, and the studs are not continuous beyond each floor. Also known as Western Frame Construction. (2) A construction method in which a floor assembly creates an individual platform that rest on the foundation. Wall assemblies the height of one story are placed on this platform and a sec-ond platform rests on top of the wall unit. Each platform creates fire stops at each floor level restricting the spread of fire within the wall cavity.
— Wood sheet product made from several thin veneer layers that are sliced from logs and glued together.
— Toxic compound found in some older oil-filled electric transformers.
— A polymer formed by reacting an iso- cyanate with a polyol; used in many applications including floating insulating foams and floating ropes.
Pipe Chase
Platform Frame Construction
Plywood
Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB)
Polyurethane
— Synthetic chemical used in the manufacture of plastics and single-ply membrane roofs.
— Most commonly used cement, con- sisting chiefly of calcium and aluminum silicate. It is mixed with water to form mortar, a paste that hardens, and is therefore known as a hydraulic cement.
— Construction style using vertical elements to support horizontal elements. Associated with heavy beams and columns; historically constructed of wood.
— Concrete reinforcement method. Reinforcing steel strands placed in protective sleeves in the concrete are tensioned after the concrete has hardened.
— Method of building construction where the concrete building member is poured and set according to specification in a controlled environment and is then shipped to the construction site for use.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Portland Cement
Post and Beam Construction
Posttensioned Reinforcement (Concrete)
Precast Concrete
— Act of preparing to manage an incident at a particular location or a particular type of in- cident before an incident occurs. Also known as Prefire Inspection, Prefire Planning, Preincident Inspection, Preincident Survey, or Preplanning.
— Assessment of a facility or location made before an emergency occurs, in order to prepare for an appropriate emergency response. Also known as Preplan.
— Valve installed at standpipe connection that is designed to reduce the amount of wa- ter pressure at that discharge to a specific pressure, usually 100 psi (700 kPa).
— Stress introduced to the concrete before the load is applied; accomplished by applying tension to reinforcing bars before the concrete is poured.
— Concrete re- inforcement method. Steel strands are stretched, producing a tensile force in the steel. Concrete is then placed around the steel strands and allowed to harden.
— Materials produced and re- leased during burning.
Preincident Planning
Preincident Survey
Pressure-Reducing Valve
Prestressing
Pretensioned Reinforcement (Concrete)
Products of Combustion
— Horizontal member between trusses that sup- port the roof.
— The chemical decomposition of a solid mate- rial by heating. Pyrolysis precedes combustion of a solid fuel.
— Inclined beam that supports a roof, runs paral- lel to the slope of the roof, and to which the roof decking is attached.
— Horizontal roof framing member at the bot- tom of the roof framing system; helps keep walls from spreading due to the weight of the roof.
— Assemblies of building components such as doors, walls, roofs, and other structural features that may be, because of the occupancy, required by code to have a minimum fire-resistance rating from an inde- pendent testing agency. Also known as Labeled Assembly and Fire-Rated.
Purlin
Pyrolysis
Rafter
Rafter Tie
Rated Assembly
— Door, frame, and hardware assembly that has a fire-resistive rating from an indepen- dent testing agency.
— Movement of air back into a ventilation system after being ejected.
— Vertical shaft with a self-closing access door on every floor; usually extending from the basement or ground floor to the top floor of multistory buildings.
— Concrete that is internally forti- fied with steel reinforcement bars or mesh placed within the concrete before it hardens. Reinforcement allows the concrete to resist tensile forces.
— Steel bars placed in con- crete forms before the cement is poured. When the concrete sets (hardens), the rebar within it adds consider- able strength and reinforcement.
Rated Fire Door Assembly
Recirculation
Refuse Chute
Reinforced Concrete
Reinforcing Bars (Rebar)
— Restructuring of a building’s spaces and oc- cupancy features.
— Restoring or updating a building’s features including finishing materials, furnishing, and overall appearance.
– Movements of relatively large amplitude re- sulting from a small force applied at the natural frequency of a structure.
— Unoccupied space within a build- ing through which air flows back to the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system; nor- mally immediately above a ceiling and below an insulated roof or the floor above.
— Highest horizontal member in a pitched roof to which the upper ends of the rafters attach. Also known as Ridge Board or Ridgepole.
Remodel
Renovate
Resonance
Return-Air Plenum
Ridge Beam
— Load bearing system constructed with a skeletal frame and reinforcement between a column and beam.
— Vertical distance between the treads of a stairway, or the height of the entire stairway.
— Vertical part of a stair step.
— Roof covering made of flexible material that may be applied to the roof deck as a continuous sheet. Commonly used on shallow pitch roofs.
— Process of forming metal stock into shapes in- cluding sheets by passing thick bars of metal through a pair of rollers. Cold rolling occurs at temperatures above recrystallization temperature.
Run —The horizontal measurement of a stair tread or the distance of the entire stair length.
R-Value — A measure of the ability of a material to insu- late. Used in structural engineering and construction. Insulators with higher R-values are more effective.
Rigid Frame
Rise
Riser
Roll Roofing
Rolling
— Connection between two parts made by the cutting of overlapping mating parts and securing them by glue or fasteners so that the joint is not enlarged and the patterns are complementary.
— Movement of a shock wave through the ground or structure after a large detonation; may cause additional damage to surrounding structures.
— Forces produced by earthquakes travel in waves. These are the most complex forces that can be exerted on a building.
— Application of forces caused by earthquakes.
— Door equipped with a door closer.
Scarf Joint
Seismic Effect
Seismic Forces
Seismic Load
Self-Closing Door
— Distance from the street line to the front of a
building.
— Downward deformation of a building’s
structural elements. Also known as Settling.
— Stress resulting when two forces act on a
body in opposite directions in parallel adjacent planes.
— Wall panels that are braced against lateral loads. May be load-bearing or nonload-bearing.
— Rigid, three-dimensional structure with an outer “skin” thickness that is small compared to other dimensions.
— Having occupants remain in a struc- ture or vehicle in order to provide protection from a rapidly approaching hazard, such as a fire or hazardous gas cloud. Opposite of Evacuation. Also known as Protection-in-Place, Defending-in-Place, Sheltering, and Taking Refuge.
Setback
Settlement
Shear Stress
Shear Wall
Shell Structure
Shelter in Place
— General term used for lengths of timber, screw jacks, hydraulic and pneumatic jacks, and other devices that can be used as temporary support for formwork or structural components or used to hold sheeting against trench walls. Individual supports are called shores, cross braces, and struts. Commonly used in conjunction with cribbing.
— A circuit breaker used as a safety device in an elevator system. When electrical current surges, the device disconnects the power source.
– Stairwell pressurization sys- tem that uses one point of supply air; pressurization can be lost if the system becomes unsealed through the use of doors.
— Construction technique using concrete slabs supported by concrete beams.
— Comparison of the height or length of a structural component and the width/thickness of the component. Used to determine the load that can be sup- ported by the component; lower ratios indicate components are more stable.
Shoring
Shunt Trip
Single-Injection System
Slab and Beam Frame
Slenderness Ratio
— Door that opens and closes by sliding across its opening, usually on rollers.
— Method of evaluating the moisture content of wet concrete by measuring the amount that a small, cone-shaped sample of the concrete slumps after it is re- moved from a standard-sized test mold.
— Strategic use of passive and active de- vices and systems to direct or stop the movement of smoke and other products of combustion.
— Setting on an HVAC system or Fire Alarm Control Unit system that can be activated au- tomatically or manually to initiate a programmed smoke control procedure.
— Device that automatically restricts the flow of smoke through all or part of an air-handling sys- tem; usually activated by the building’s fire alarm signaling system.
— The measure of the relative visual obscurity created during the testing process by a known material.
— Fully enclosed escape stairway that ex- its directly onto a public way; these enclosures are either mechanically pressurized or they require the user to exit the building onto an outside balcony before entering the stairway. Also known as Smokeproof Enclosure or Smokeproof Stairway.
— Stairways that are de- signed to limit the penetration of products of combustion into a stairway enclosure that serves as part of a means of egress.
Sliding Door
Slump Test
Smoke Control
Smoke Control Mode
Smoke Damper
Smoke Developed Rating
Smoke Tower
Smokeproof Stair Enclosures
— Physical qualities of the materials at the surface of the earth. Affects a building’s foundation and size. Influential variables include texture, structure, den- sity, porosity, and consistency.
— Aluminum skeleton upon which an alu- minum, plastic, or composite skin is attached. The internal structure provides structural support, while the skin provides styling and protection from the elements.
— Expansion of excess moisture within ma- sonry materials due to exposure to the heat of a fire, resulting in tensile forces within the material, and caus- ing it to break apart. The expansion causes sections of the material’s surface to violently disintegrate, resulting in explosive pitting or chipping of the material’s surface.
— Building built before securing a tenant or occupant. Spec is short for speculation.
— Mass (weight) of a substance com- pared to the weight of an equal volume of water at a given temperature. A specific gravity less than 1 indicates a substance lighter than water; a specific gravity greater than 1 indicates a substance heavier than water.
Soil Property
Space Frame
Spalling
Spec Building
Specific Gravity
— Coating used to increase the fire resistance rating of structural components. Materials commonly include mineral fiber or aggregates such as vermiculite and perlite.
— Wet or dry system of pipes in a large single-story or multistory building, with fire hose outlets installed in different areas or on different levels of a build- ing to be used by firefighters and/or building occupants. This system is used to provide for the quick deployment of hoselines during fire fighting operations.
— Load that is steady, motionless, constant, or applied gradually.
— A system includ- ing a battery, a charger, and electrical equipment for a particular application. This type of system can include a lead-acid battery or a safer type of battery.
— An alloy of iron and carbon; proportions and ad- ditional elements affect the characteristics of the finished material. Used widely in the construction of buildings and other infrastructure.
— Test apparatus used in the determina- tion of flame spread ratings; consists of a horizontal test furnace 25 feet (7.5 m) long, 171⁄2 inches (440 mm) wide, and 12 inches (300 mm) high that is used to observe flame travel. A 5,000 Btu (5 000 kJ) flame is produced in the tun- nel, and the extent of flame travel across the surface of the test material is observed through ports in the side of the furnace. Used with ASTM E-84, also known as the “Tunnel Test.”
Spray-Applied Fire Resistive Material (SRFM)
Standpipe System
Static Load
Stationary Storage Battery System
Steel
Steiner Tunnel
— Sheet-like layer of rock or earth; numerous other layers, each with different characteristics, are typi- cally found above and below. Plural: Strata.
— Factors that work against the strength of any piece of apparatus, equipment, or structural support. Measurement of intensity is calculated as force divided by area.
— A composite panel used in structural applications; made of plastic foam be- tween two outer wood panels, often oriented strand board (OSB).
— The use or addition of structural supports to improve the ability of a structure to withstand forces imposed by loads. Often indicates supplemental reinforcement to accommodate specific types of loads, such as earthquake forces. Also known as Stiffening.
— Vertical structural member within a wall in frame buildings; most are made of wood, but some are made of light-gauge metal.
Stratum
Stress
Structural Insulated Panel (SIP)
Structural Stiffness
Stud
— Admixture used with concrete or mortar mix to make it workable, pliable, and soft while using relatively little water.
— System of construction in which the building consists primarily of an enclosing surface, and in which the stresses resulting from the applied loads oc- cur within the bearing wall structures.
— Speed at which flame will spread over the surface of a material.
— Relationship between the available surface area of the fuel and the mass of the fuel; used to predict the rate of fire consumption of combusti- ble material.
— Door that opens and closes by swing- ing from one side of its opening, usually on hinges. Also known as Hinged Door.
Superplasticizer
Surface Systems
Surface-Burning Characteristic
Surface-To-Mass Ratio
Swinging Door
— Stress in a structural member that tends to stretch the member or pull it apart; often used to de- note the greatest amount of force a component can withstand without failure.
— Vertical or horizontal force that pulls material apart; for example, the force exerted on the bottom chord of a truss.
— Transmission or transfer of heat energy, from one body to another body at a lower temper- ature, through intervening space by electromagnetic waves similar to radio waves or X-rays.
— Plastic that softens with an increase of temperature and hardens with a decrease of temperature but does not undergo any chemical change. Synthetic material made from the polymerization of organic com- pounds that become soft when heated and hard when cooled.
— Fire walls connected to a line of columns or steel structural supports with the same degree of fire re- sistance. Must resist lateral collapse on either side of the structure.
Tensile Stress
Tension
Thermal Radiation
Thermoplastic
— Type of construction in which concrete wall sections (slabs) are cast on the concrete floor of the building, then tilted up into the vertical posi- tion. Also known as Tilt-Slab Construction.
— Similar to a metal-clad door, except covered with a lighter-gauge metal, often an alloy of tin and lead.
— Load aligned off-center from the cross- section of the structural component and at an angle to or in the same plane as the cross-section; produces a twist- ing effect that creates shear stresses in a material.
— Device that uses coils and magnetic fields to increase (step-up) or decrease (step-down) in- coming voltages.
— Structural load that exerts a force perpendicular to structural members.
— Horizontal face of a step.
— Structural member used to support a roof or floor with triangles or combinations of triangles to pro- vide maximum load-bearing capacity with a minimum amount of material. Connections are likely to fail in in- tense heat.
— Concrete construction framework type that uses reinforcing steel placed on the bottom of the framework that provides reinforcement in two directions. Also known as Waffle Construction.
Tilt-Up Construction
Tin-Clad Door
Torsional Load
Transformer
Transverse Load
Tread
Truss
Two-Way Slab Construction
— The use of permanent supports to strengthening an existing foundation.
— Steel structural members that are not protected against exposure to heat.
— Vertical pathway (shaft) in a building that contains utility services such as laundry or refuse chutes, and grease ducts.
— Walls with a surface layer of attractive material laid over a base of a common material.
— Communication services that utilize an Internet connection to transmit telephone signals.
Underpinning
Unprotected Steel
Utility Chase
Veneered Walls
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
— Type of shallow foundation that includes a wide, thick area to distribute the weight of a wall on the bearing soil. Also known as Strip Footing.
— The highest level of ground water satura- tion of subsurface materials. Influential variables include the season, soil properties, and topography.
— (1) Wide vertical part of a beam between thick horizontal flanges at the top and bottom of the beam. (2) Secondary member of a truss contained between the chords. Also known as Diagonals.
— Line, area, or zone where an undeveloped wildland area meets a human develop- ment area. Also known as Urban/Wildland Interface.
— Horizontal movement of air relative to the sur- face of the earth.
— Flat sheet of glass or fire glazing contain- ing an embedded wire mesh that increases its resistance to breakage and penetration; installed to increase inte- rior illumination without compromising fire resistance and security. May be transparent or translucent.
— Single vertical row of a series of rows of ma- sonry units in a wall; usually brick or concrete block.
Wall Footing
Water Table
Web
Wildland/Urban Interface
Wind
Wired Glass
Wythe
There are only three primary strategies in a fire incident:
______________usually involves the transfer of heat energy through the movement of hot smoke and fire gases.
Convection
The final consideration in the building design process is _______
Landscaping
A primary hazard of _______________is the tendency of components to increase the combustibility of the overall building.
Green design
_________construction elements are often engineered to be more energy- and material-efficient, so they may have smaller dimensions and be more likely to fail under fire and fire suppression conditions.
Green
When buildings are constructed without a known occupant, they are referred to as _______. This type of construction is often developed primarily as an investment rather than to meet specific needs.
Spec buildings
Fire spread is often expressed in terms of heat transfer through two methods: _____________, and ________.
Convection and thermal radiation
Unwillingness to spend additional money may entice a building owner to con- tinue work without the necessary permits at any phase of work, but primarily during_________.
Renovation
The ________ of a building refers to its general shape or layout.
Configuration
Examples of factors that may require maintenance and upgrading over time include:
•_________ systems such as the electrical wiring and heating plant
•_________ protection from the weather, such as roofs
• Settling__________
Physical
Exterior
Foundations
Water availability is an essential consideration in the design of fire protec- tion systems. The primary concern is the ________________needed for the fire protection system’s flow rate.
water quantity
_________frequently clash with fire safety concerns.
Aesthetics
The earli- est_______________ were developed to prevent future conflagrations from destroying whole neighborhoods or large sections of a city.
building codes
Depending on the wind direction, convective plumes are also significant when the exposed build- ing is_________ than the exposing building.
higher
Some known ways that fires spread to an exposed building include:
•Ventilation pulls in flames, hot brands, or superheated_________
• Openings, such as doors, allow_________ to enter the structure
• Roof materials ignite readily from_________
• Siding materials ignite readily from_______or___________
• Windows and window dressings allow__________ to start fire directly inside
• Structures or other fire loads placed in close proximity to each other
• Lack of organized fire protection and/or systems to limit fire size
convective currents
convection currents
convection
convection or radiant heat
radiant heat
NFPA 80®A, Recommended Practice for Protection from Exterior Fire Expo- sure, describes three levels of exposure based on the potential severity of the exposing fire:_______,______, or__________. The levels are based on the_______ and the_________rating of the wall and ceiling finishes of the burning building.
light, moderate, or severe
fire load and the flame spread rating
______________refer to any failure to provide a level of fire safety appropri- ate to the ultimate use of the building, regardless of the reason but including:
• Oversight • Incorrect assumption • Oversimplification • Underestimation
Design deficiencies
The_________ process is a resource that can be used by firefighters to develop knowledge of building construction in their jurisdiction.
building permit
Movable partitions, such as those often used to subdivide a ballroom or banquet facility, are treated as__________.
interior finish
Flame______ over a specific material can be measured and predicted in degrees known as the_____________ characteristics of the material when evaluating the following:
•__________,_________, and_________ of the material (Figure 5.1)
• Ventilation
• _____ and _______ of a compartment
• ________ material on the ceiling or wall
Flame spread
Surface-burning characteristics
Composition, orientation, and thickness
Shape and size
Finish material
The first efforts at evaluating and controlling the combustibility of interior finish materials began after several disastrous_______ fires in the_______.
Hotel fires in the 1940s
___________have increasingly developed as a factor in the development of fires, especially with the introduction of various deep-pile__________.
Floor coverings
Floor carpets
The flame spread rating of some interior finishes, most notably_______ materials, can be reduced through the use of properly applied__________ coatings.
Wood materials
Fire-retardant coatings
Fire retardant coatings cannot be substituted for_____________________.
Structural fire protection
_________________procedures include standardized meth- odologies that are intended to control as many variables as possible and yield meaningful results.
Criterion-referenced testing (CRT)
According to the test protocol, the flame will travel along the ___ flooring ___ feet in ____ minutes. The flame spread of other materials during the test is compared to that of ______. The higher the flame spread rating, the more rapidly flame will spread (Table 5.1). Flame spread ratings over ______ are not permitted in occupancies, per Code.
Oak flooring
24 feet (7 m) in 51⁄2 minutes
Red oak
Over 200
Flame Spread Ratings of Common Materials
Example Material
Asbestos Cement Board _____
Gypsum Wallboard ______
Mineral Acoustic Tile _____
Treated Douglas Fir ________
Plywood __________
Red Oak Flooring ________
Walnut-Faced Plywood ________
Veneered Woods_________
0
10-15
15-25
15-60
100
171-260
515 (approx.)
Considerable effort has been made over the years to develop test procedures that incorporate the ____ and ______ of rooms in a building. These methods are collectively known as _________ ________.
size and shape
corner tests
The International Building Code® (IBC) allows interior finish materials to be tested in accordance with NFPA® 286 instead of ASTM E-84. However, the code then establishes specific acceptance criteria including:
• Flame spread to the _______ of the test chamber must be noted
• The flame cannot spread to the ________ ________ of the sample
• __________ cannot occur
• Limitation of the peak rate of heat release below _______ kW
• Limitation of the maximum amount of ________ released
ceiling
outer extremity
Flashover
800kW
smoke
NFPA interior finish tests
These tests do not provide a ____________ test result such as the flame spread rating derived from ASTM E-84. Instead, the test material is judged either __________ or ________ depending on the extent of fire growth that occurs within the test room upon exposure to _____ different-size ______ flames.
Numerical
Satisfactory or unsatisfactory
Two different size gas flames
Limitations of Test Findings
Test results should be used as _______, not __________ outcomes.
benchmarks
guaranteed
Walls and Partitions
The degree of fire resistance required of a wall or partition will depend on the______ of the component.
purpose
The International Building Code® (IBC) also permits_______ structural members to be framed into a masonry or concrete fire wall from opposite sides provided there is a _______separation between the ends of the structural members
combustible
4-inch (100 mm)
In structures as close as___________ apart,_____________ may take the place of the clearance space to prevent fire- spread from one structure to an adjacent exposure.
18 inches (450 mm)
rated construction
___________are interior walls that do not qualify as fire walls but are used to subdivide a floor or area of a building. ————- are not required to extend__________ through a building.
Fire partitions
continuously
The purpose of____________ is to block the vertical spread of fire through a building’s openings including:
enclosure walls
Enclosure walls are required to have a fire resistance rating of__or___ hours depending on the_______ of the building.
one or two hours
height
The development of the steel-framed high-rise building led to the existence of the__________
curtain wall,
Curtain walls are often________. Some curtain wall assemblies are_________ but have no fire________, such as those made of aluminum and glass. Building codes may require that______ walls have some degree of fire resistance to reduce the communication of fire between buildings. The required fire resistance depends on the________________and the building _____________
Curtain walls are supported at the _____ of each ______ of the building and may have a ____ between the edge of the floor and the curtain wall (Figure 5.13). This opening may be _________ inches wide and can provide a path for fire spread up the inside of the curtain wall.________ can be added to the edge of the floor to maintain the continuity of the fire-resistive barrier.
Nonfire-resistive curtain walls frequently extend from the floor to the ceil- ing of ______ level.
nonload-bearing
noncombustible
Fire resistance
exterior
separation distance between build- ings and the building occupancy.
edge of each floor
Gap
Several inches wide
Fire stops
One level
____________should be carefully noted during preincident surveys because they may be installed in unexpected areas
Fire doors
Fire doors are rated in increments of time from ___ minutes to ___ hours. The ____-hour and ___-hour doors are primarily used in smoke barriers and openings to corridors.
A fire door may also have a combination classification using a ______ rating and a _____ indicating the type of opening.
20 minutes to 4 hours
1/2 hour and 1/3 hour
Time rating and a letter
When firefighters withdraw, fire doors must be_________.
closed
Fire Door Classifications
The letter designations are as follows:
• Class A – Openings in________
• Class B– Openings in_________ and openings in ___- hour rated partitions
• Class C – Openings between _____ and ________ having a fire resistance of ___-hour(s) or less
• Class D – Openings in exterior walls subject to ________ fire exposure from the outside of a building
• Class E – Openings in exterior walls subject to _______ or _______ exposure from the outside
fire walls
vertical shafts
2 hour
rooms and corridors
1
exterior walls
Severe
Exterior
Moderate or light
To effectively block the spread of fire, the entire rated fire door__________ must have a degree of fire resistance similar to fire-rated walls.
assembly
Fire Door Requirements
Codes typically require __- or __-hour rated doors in fire walls of greater than a ___-hour rating. Doors rated at ____ hours are normally required for _____-hour rated vertical enclosures. ___-hour doors are used for ___-hour vertical shaft enclosures and exit enclosures.
3- or 4-hour
greater than a 2-hour
11⁄2 hours
2-hour
1-hour
1-hour
Rolling (overhead) doors are often installed in the following locations:
• Along _________to protect_________ openings
• To protect an opening in a fire wall in an__________ occupancy
• On one or_______ sides of a wall opening
• At an opening in a wall that separates_________
Rolling (overhead) doors are constructed of interlocking steel slats with other operating components including:
•___________ device
• Speed_________
•___________ mechanism
• Wall_______
corridors
convenience
industrial
both
buildings
Releasing
governor
Counterbalance
guides
Horizontal sliding fire doors are often found in older________ buildings. These doors are usually held open with a___________. When the link is activated, the door slides into position along a track either by__________ or by the force of a_________.
Most horizontal sliding doors are______-clad or_____-clad doors with a_____ core that provides insulation, covered in sheet metal that protects the wood from the fire. Because wood undergoes thermal decomposition when exposed to heat, a______ is usually provided in the sheet metal to vent the gases of decomposition
Metals used often include:
• Steel
• Galvanized sheet metal
• Terneplate
industrial
fusible link
gravity
counterweight
metal
tin
wood
hole
Other types of special-purpose fire doors include horizontally sliding________ or folding doors. Both types of doors are______ driven and require__________ power for operation. A signal from a smoke detector or fire alarm system initiates the door_________. A________ powers the motor when the regular power supply is interrupted.
accordion
motor
electrical
closing
battery
Wood swinging fire doors include hardware that can also be referred to as “_________hardware” or “fire door hardware.”
builder’s
_________can be used in partitions and fire doors where visibility is desired and a fire rating is required
Glazing
_______doors are the most common application of fire-
rated glazing.
Fire
Fire doors with ratings of ____hour can have a total glass area consistent with their listing, below a stated maximum ______. Fire doors with ratings of ____or ____hour can have fire-rated glass up to the maximum area to which they were_____.
3⁄4 hour
Area
1⁄2 or 1⁄3 hour
tested
_______may be installed in a fire door to permit ventilation while the door is closed under normal conditions, such as in the case of a furnace room enclo- sure. The ——— in a fire door must automatically_____ under fire conditions. Usually, the mechanism of closing ———— is the release of a______.
——— cannot be arbitrarily installed in fire doors. Only fire doors that are listed for the installation of ——— can have ——— installed. For example,________ fire doors with ratings up to _____hours can be equipped with ———-.
Louvers
close
fusible link
swinging
up to 11⁄2 hours
Proper fire door operation requires that the doors be properly_________.
maintained
Failure of fire doors to______ properly is a common occurrence in fire conditions. A door will be likely to fail when the following components are damaged:
• The door______
• The door_______
• Door_______
______fire doors are especially subject to damage. The closing mechanisms on ———— doors are more complicated and typically more inconspicuous than those on swinging doors
close
closer
itself
guides
Overhead
For fire doors, the primary criterion for acceptability is that the fire door must remain _______ in its ______ during the flame test. Parameters include:
• Some_________ of the door is permitted.
•___________ passage of flames is permitted after the
first____ minutes of the test (Figure 5.32).
• Surface____________ rise is not regulated on the un- exposed side of the door for most of the doors tested. In fact, metal doors may glow red from the heat of the test fire.
The second criterion for acceptability is that the fire door assembly must remain in place when subjected to a___________ immediately following the fire test
securely in its frame
warping
Intermittent
30
temperature
hose stream
Fire doors that pass a testing process are marked with a _____ or ______ on the ___ or on the _____ side of the door that indicates information including (Fig- ure 5.34):
• Door_____
•______ rating
• Identifying_______ of the testing laboratory
Although the door’s rating information can help building and fire inspectors while determining the opening’s protection, the information cannot protect against limitations including:
• The presence of a rated door and frame assembly does NOT indicate that the________________ is also rated.
label or plate on the top or on the hinge side
type
Hourly
symbol
surrounding wall
The function of a___________ is to transfer a building’s weight to the ground.
foundation
_______________are used when a test pit may not reach deep enough.
Test borings
The number of_________ required to reach a given distance will provide information about the soil strata
impacts
The________ of the structure will influence the required depth of the foundation.
size
– Continuous strip of concrete that supports a wall.
Wall footing
When the load-bearing capacity of the soil is not able to bear a heavy weight, the_______ must be large enough to spread out the weight of the building. Simple slabs may be only________ thick. Other types of slab foundations that serve specific purposes include:
•__________ foundation – A thick slab beneath the entire area of a building. A mat may be _______feet thick and heavily___________.
footing
one foot
Mat slab
several
reinforced
Deep foundations take the form of _______ or ________ that penetrate the layers of soil directly under a building to reach soil or rock that can support the weight of the building
piles or piers
When the ground slope angle is severe, piles or piers are placed in the more dense lower soils. These deep elements act as_____________ to resist the_________ force of the building (Figure 6.7). The vertical elements are connected with a___________
vertical cantilevers
lateral
tie beam
Construction of_______ begins with drilling or digging a shaft, and then filling it with concrete.
piers
_______and__________ secured with_______ are the materials most commonly used for foundation walls
Concrete and masonry
mortar
Wood may be used in foundation walls in ________ construction or where the walls must be highly ____________. The wood must be treated with ___________ to resist decay.
Light frame
Insulated
Preservatives
___________(EPS) can be used as a component of foundation walls. It may be placed on the_______ of below-grade walls for_________. Depend- ing on its chemical composition, EPS may add to the________ of a building. EPS must also be protected from________ because sunlight will damage it. To protect EPS from fire and UV light, products such as _______or________can easily be affixed to the outside surface of EPS
Expanded polystyrene
outside
insulation
fire load
UV light
stucco or drywall
After buildings are constructed, they will often______ to some degree.________ of foundations is the most frequent type of building movement, and all buildings are subject to some degree of__________.
shift
Settlement
settlement
Settlement of a foundation can be either __________ or ___________. _________ settlement results in parts of a foundation settling at the same rate and ________ misalignment between structural members. __________ settlement can result in ___________ misalignment of structural members. Causes of ————- settlement include:
• ___________ soil conditions under the foundation
• Footings of different __________
• Footings placed at different ___________
• Unequal __________ on footings
Uniform or differential
Uniform
Minimal
Differential
Significant
Nonuniform
Sizes
Elevations
Loads
_________ refers to temporary supports and ___________ refers to permanent supports.
Shoring
Underpinning
