British Political History 1846-1919 Flashcards
What was the political state of Britian going into 1846?
Empire
Industrial revolution was ongoing
Great Reform Act of 1832 had expanded the franchise, abolished rotten boroughs, and gave representation to cities
Slavery had been recently abolished (slave trade 1807, slavery 1833)
Large gender and class divide, religion very important
Queen Victoria is monarch
What is liberalism as a 19th century political ideology?
An ideology that advocates for civil liberties under the rule of law, with an emphasis on economic freedom (laissez-faire
What is free trade?
The ability to trade without tariffs and the view that trade is beneficial for a nation. It is a core liberal value
What is Home Rule?
The view that Irish people should have their own parliament in their own country
What is the extension of the franchise?
Giving more people the right to vote
What were some key Tory/Conservative beliefs in 1846?
Support for the Church of England Represented the richest landowners Supported the monarchy and nobility Support for protectionism and the Corn Laws Support for Empire Opposing expansion of the franchise 'Monarchy, Church, and Empire' Following Peel's Tamworth Manifesto (1834), the idea that the party would avoid unneccesary change, but would "reform to survive"
What were some key Whig beliefs in 1846?
Support for religious freedom for non-conformists
Support for consitutional monarchy
Representing the interests of wealthy merchants and the gentry
Support for free trade and small government
What is the link between the Industrial Revolution and political reform?
The Industrial Revolution led to industrialisation and urbanisation. Many industrialists became rich and began to demand the right to vote, and new industrial cities e.g. Manchester demanded representation. With dense populations, discontent in these cities could easily turn to violence e.g. the Peterloo Massacre (1819). In large part to satisfy these demands, the Great Reform Act was passed in 1832 to extend the franchise and give representation to new industrial cities.
When was Peel’s second ministry and what were its key accompanishments?
1841-46
1842 Mines and Collieries Act: prohibited underground work for those under 10 and women
1842 Income Tax Act: reintroduced a flat income tax for those earning over a certain amount
1844 Factories Act: introduced new safety standards e.g. fencing off all dangerous machinery and made it a criminal offence to fail to meet these. Limited the working hours for young people and women in factories e.g. children could only work 6.5 hours per day, with 3 hours of schooling
1844 Railway Regulation Act: created minimum standards of comfort for third class carriages to improve the standards of railways for the poor
Removal of import and export duties on more than 700 items, which he could afford to do as a result of the new Income Tax
Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
Why were the Corn Laws unpopular? What led to their repeal?
They kept grain prices artificially high by levying tariffs, leading to high food prices
They were most unpopular with workers and industrialists, while they were supported by landowners
In 1839 the Anti-Corn Law League was founded in Manchester and its leader (Richard Cobden) was able to influence Peel
The magazine The Economist was founded and advocated for their repeal
The Irish Potato Famine was exacerbated by the Corn Laws, convincing Peel on the need to repeal
Peel was ideologically predisposed to free trade and believed prime ministers should do what is right, rather than what MPs believe
Peel repealed the Corn Laws without the support of many Tories but with the support of much of his cabinet, Whigs, and Radicals, but was defeated on his Irish Coercion Bill later that night and resigned shortly after
What was the political fallout of the repeal of the Corn Laws?
The Whigs came to power under Lord John Russell, as Peel resigned following the failure of the Irish Coercion Bill and the Tories had fractured so could not form a majority
The Tories split, with Peel and his pro-free trade supporters forming the Peelites. This included almost all of the high-ranking Tories who had held office, including the Home Secretary, the Foreign Secretary (The Earl of Aberdeen) and Gladstone. Disraeli was left as a major figure in the party.
The Peelites would merge with the Radicals and Whigs in 1859 to form the Liberal Party.
Though the Tories returned to power in 1852, this was for less than a year, and the administration was nicknamed the “Who? Who?” ministry, from the cries of the Duke of Wellington as the list of inexperienced cabinet members was read out. The Tories would not form a majority government until 1874.
Many Tories later came to accept repeal. Despite Disraeli’s prediction of agricultural ruin if repeal took place, he refused to reinstate tariffs as prime minister, declaring the matter as settled.
When was Russell’s first ministry and what were its key accompanishments? What was its major issue?
1846-52
1847 Factory Act limited working hours of women and young people in textile mills to 10 hours per day (major Radical cause)
1847 Irish Poor Law Extension Act introduced the Gregory Clause (no relief for anyone owning more than 1/4 acre of land) and shifted the cost of relief wholly to Irish landowners
1849 Repeal of the Navigation Acts, which heavily regulated and taxed trade with other countries and the colonies
Russell often feuded with the foreign secretary, Palmerston (e.g. over the Don Pacifico affair). Palmerston was forced to resign in 1851 after recognising Napoleon’s coup without seeking royal approval, but in return brought down the administration, leading to Derby’s government.
What were the Peelites?
A splinter group from the Conservatives, who formed a loose group under Peel after his resignation as PM. They included much of his cabinet, so nearly all of the high ranking Tories who had held office, including the Home Secretary, the Foreign Secretary (The Earl of Aberdeen) and Gladstone. There were around 50 Peelite MPs and 70 sympathetic, pro-free trade Conservatives, enough to keep the Tories out of power after the 1847 election.
They were not a party as such, sitting with the Tories in the House of Commons and generally expected to rejoin at one point or another, but they voted with the Whigs on key issues to keep the protectionist Tories (led by the Earl of Derby) out of power.
They lost influence in the 1850s as the issue of trade declined, with the Conservatives saying they would not reintroduce corn duties. By 1857 they only had 25 MPs and by 1859 they were largely irrelevant.
Who were the Radicals?
A political group supporting more extreme reforms. There were around 54 MPs who could be described as Radical from 1847-59, but much of their support came from northern industrial cities, which were underrepresented in Parliament. They supported the extension of the franchise (though there was disagreement over how far this should go, with consensus that middle class interest should be more represented), religious equality, Italian unification, freedom of the individual, and free trade. Prominent members included Richard Cobden and John Bright. However, support for oppressed people and freedom of the individual often came into conflict e.g. John Bright's opposition to the 1847 Factories Act. They had greater influence in pressure groups such as the National Education League. They merged into the Liberal Party in 1859.
What were the hallmarks of British political life from 1846-1865?
Difficulty to form a stable government: MPs tended to think of themselves as individuals first and party men second, there were a large number of independent MPs, the Conservatives were fragmented with the Peelites, and coalition governments (e.g. Whig-Peelite) were common, leading to unstable governments
Conservative inability to form a majority government: most other parties were pro-free trade so could come together to form a government, while the Conservatives had little allies; the Peelites held a significant number of seats (~50 in 1847) and voted to keep the protectionist Tories out of power; the Whigs and Peelites had the majority of famous politicians of the time, with the 1852 Derby administration nicknamed the “Who? Who?” Ministry. As a result, the Conservatives largely abandoned their opposition to free trade in this time.
How did changing economic and social conditions help lead to the formation of the Liberal Party?
Rapid population growth (from 16 million in 1801 to 31 million in 1871), especially in major industrial cities, whose residents demanded cheaper products, so usually free trrade
Radicals grew in number, especially in northern cities and in pressure groups such as the Anti-Corn Law League
The growth of the industrial and middle class led to a growing electorate of people opposed to trade and economic barriers
Non-Conformists (e.g. Baptists) grew in number, who generally supported the Whigs
Railways expanded, allowing people to move around more easily, helping the spread of liberal ideas
Growth of the ‘petite bourgeoisie’, which generally supported individual liberty, free trade, and small, acoountable government
What was the impact of Gladstone, Russell, and Palmerston on the formation of the Liberal Party?
Gladstone’s journey from Tory to Liberal convinced others that it was possible and his views on economics (Gladstonian finance: balanced budgets, low taxes, and laissez faire) came to define the Liberal Party when it was in need of a unifying force.
Russell had a vision to unite Whigs and Peelites into one party so had an important role in uniting the coalition
Palmerston was Prime Minister during the unification, but often feuded with Russell
What was the Don Pacifico affair and its impact on British politics?
An example of gunboat diplomacy: In 1850 Don Pacifico, a Portuguese Jewish diplomat serving in Greece had his house burned down in an anti-Semetic riot. He demanded compensation from the Greek government, but they refused. As he was also a British subject, Palmerston (the Foreign Secretary) sent a naval squadron to blockade Greece until they agreed to his demands, which they later did. Palmerston was opposed by Gladstone and Russell, but his proposal was passed in the Commons after his five-hour ‘Civis Romanus sum’ speech.
What were the 1848 revolutions and their impact on British politics?
A series of revolutions against European monarchies, leading to liberal reforms in some. Palmerston strongly supported revolutionaries, protesting Austria’s repression and wanting to meet Hungarian revolutionary Lajos Kossuth at his country house. The Cabinet had to vote down this meeting, with Queen Victoria asking Russell for Palmerston’s resignation. Instead he received trade unionists who praised Kossuth, regarded as a snub to the royals.
Liberal sentiment also increased in the UK and Palmerston’s vocal support for revolutionaries was therefore very popular.
What was the Arrow incident and its impact on British politics?
In 1856, during the Second Opium War, China seized the British ship Arrow. The governor of Hong Kong ordered a bombardment of Canton, where it was seized. Palmerston supported this but Gladstone, Russell, and the Tories did not, so the Commons passed a bill opposing it. In the next election Palmerston used his support for the blockade in his campaign, leading to the more interventionist Whigs benefitting at the expense of less interventionist Peelites. Gladstone changed his views while the rift between Palmerston and Russell grew.
What was the Crimean War and its impact on British politics?
In 1853 the Ottomans declared war on Russia. The Tories, Peelites, and PM Aberdeen were against joining in, but the Whigs (including Palmerston) and the British press were in favour, and in 1854 Britain joined alongside France. However, the British war effort was marked by gross mismanagement, with many deaths, and public opinion turned against the government. In 1855 the Commons voted for an investigation into mismanagement, viewed as a vote of no confidence in the government, leading to Aberdeen’s government resigning and Palmerston becoming PM.
What was Italian unification and its impact on British politics?
From 1848 to 1870 the Italian states gradually unified under Piedmont-Sardinia. Gladstone was outraged by the treatment of political prisoners in Italian states, having visited in 1850. He wrote letters to Aberdeen in support of the prisoners, which won him popularity in Britain. By 1854 he supported Italian unification (even though it was against British strategic interests, as it would weaken Austria, which would in turn strengthen Russia) and believed Italy needed Britain’s support. This led him to align with Palmerston, who also supported unification, helping the formation of the Liberal Party, as it led to him joining a Whig-Radical alliance and meant he was willing to serve under Palmerston, despite their differences elsewhere.
What was Gladstone’s political career from 1852-55?
From 1852-55 he served as Chancellor in Aberdeen’s ministry. His handling of public finance was arguably the main success of the government: nearly all duties on foodstuffs were abolished in the 1853 budget and duties on manufactured goods were halved. The income tax increased as well as government borrowing in order to pay for the Crimean War.
What was Gladstone’s political career from 1859-65?
From 1859-65 he served as Palmerston’s Chancellor in the first Liberal ministry. He reduced the number of people subject to the income tax, meaning no working people were liable, though rising government expenditure meant he could not abolish it as he desired, especially as Palmerston wanted more money for foreign policy. In 1865 he reduced the tax to 6d in the £. He sent Richard Cobden to Paris in 1860 to negotiate ‘the Cobden treaty’, a free trade agreement between Britain and France. In 1861 he abolished the duty on paper, helping the growth of newspapers (he called this ‘the tax on knowledge’). By 1865 Britain was essentially a free trade state, with only 16 remaining import duties.
How did Gladstone reform the Civil Service?
He introduced competitive examinations
Each department was made accountable for its budget and expenditure
As a result, the Civil Service became more efficient and leaner
What is limited liability? How was Gladstone involved?
The idea that if a company fails, investors are only liable to cover the cost of their initial investment, not the whole company. It makes investment much less risky and more attractive.
Gladstone introduced this into law by two acts of Parliament, in 1856 and 1862
How did Gladstonian Liberalism differ to traditional Liberalism?
Gladstone carried over some of his Conservative social values e.g. he was against giving all men the vote, though he did support extension of the franchise
He supported a peaceful foreign policy, in contrast to Palmerston’s gunboat diplomacy and more in line with Peel
Gladstone preferred to focus on domestic rather than foreign policy
Greater concern for the middle and lower classes e.g. with the legal recognition of trade unions in 1871. Led to the nickname ‘The People’s William’
He brought a moral fervour to ideas he supported e.g. Italian unification, in contrast to the ‘rational’ positions of earlier liberals
What were the key ideas of Gladstonian Liberalism?
By 1868 (his first ministry) his key beliefs were in peace, retrenchment, and reform
He believed in extending the franchise (though not giving all men the vote) and parliamentary reform
He supported disestablishment of the Church of England in Ireland as well as reform in Ireland
He supprorted an ethical, peaceful foreign policy
Why have some historians argued that the Liberal Party did not start in proper until after Palmerston’s and Russell’s departure from politics?
They both obstinately held on to some anti-liberal beliefs, such as Russell’s opposition to the secret ballot and Palmerston’s opposition to further extension of the franchise. The Liberal Party could therefore not enact many liberal reforms until they were gone.
How did Gladstone reform education in his first ministry?
Education Act of 1870: established elected school boards throughout the country, leading to nearly 4000 new schools run by local boards by 1883. Spending on education rose from £1.6m in 1870 to £5.1m in 1885. In 1876 an extension to the act led to compulsory attendance. The Act was not an idea specific to Gladstone’s administration but rather had been discussed since an 1861 royal commission revealed the inadequacies in public education.
The Act was controversial: schools were traditionally run by the Church of England, so many religious people were worried about the state expanding into education, especially as Gladstone first insisted on secular education in state schools. He compromised on this, but this caused discontent among Nonconformists, leading to many withdrawing their support from Gladstone in the 1874 election.
How did Gladstone reform voting in his first ministry?
Ballot Act of 1872: introduced secret ballots. Before the act, there were allegations of corruption, as people could be coerced or bribed (usually by landowners or politicians) to vote for certain candidates. It was particularly impactful in Ireland, where landlords were very powerful, and allowed the Home Rule Party to achieve great success in their first election in 1874.
How did Gladstone advance meritocracy in his first ministry?
Competitive examiniations were introduced for the Civil Service (except the Foreign Office, which was seen as too important to be opened to the middle class), replacing the old system based mostly on personal influence and nepotism.
Cardwell’s reforms of the army streamlined organisation, eliminated bought commissions, and gave the Secretary of State for War more power, among other things. They were brought about by the poor performance of aristocratic officers during the Crimean War. However, the reforms had limitations: personal connections remained important, and there was still no general staff until after the disasterous Boer War.
How did Gladstone reform trade unions in his first ministry?
Trade Union Act of 1871: gave legal recognition to unions. Before 1871 their position in law was unclear, and the 1867 legal case Hornby v Close ruled they were legal but had no legal protections - they could not sue or be sued. Following this, in 1868 the Trades Union Congress was formed and a royal commission pressured for legal recognition.
However, a separate act in 1871 made picketing illegal, though this was repealed in 1875 by the Conservatives.
How did Gladstone reform public health in his first ministry?
Licensing Act of 1872: tried to curb excessive drinking by reducing the number of drinking establishments and regulating pub opening and closing hours. It was very unpopular and contributed to his 1874 defeat.
Contagious Diseases Act of 1869: allowed the arbitrary arrest of women suspected of prostitution in an attempt to curb VD.
Sanitary Health Act of 1872: partly in response to the Big Stink in London in 1858, allowed councils to introduce public health boards, though this was not required, so that costs or the influence of government were not increased too much.
What were Gladstone’s key domestic reforms in his first ministry?
Education: greater state involvement and funding through school boards (1870)
Secret ballot (1872)
Competitive examinations for the Civil Service
Cardwell reforms of the army
Legal recognition to unions (1871)
Reducing the number and opening hours of drinking establishments (1872)
What was the issue (arguably) with much of Gladstone’s legislation?
It was largely permissive i.e. giving people the freedom to do something rather than mandating it e.g. with public health boards
What were Gladstone’s views on the American Civil War?
He supported independence for small nations wanting freedom, which included the Confederacy, so spoke out in favour of the CSA. There was also pressure from some industrialists for Britain to recognise the CSA, as the Union blockade was disrupting the cotton supply for British factories, even though many workers were pro-Union as they disliked slavery. Gladstone was impressed by the workers’ moral stand and chose not to officially recognise the CSA.
What was Britain’s position during the Franco-Prussian War (1870)?
They stayed neutral after both sides agreed to respect Belgian independence. Britain was worried by Prussia’s growing power, Bismarck’s ‘blood and iron’ foreign policy, and opposition to liberalism, which could pose a challenge to peaceful diplomacy in Europe, but France was a traditional enemy and had expressed interest in taking Belgium.
The rapid collapse of France was a surprise, but there was much Britain could do to prevent Prussia’s growing power.
What was the issue with Russia and the Black Sea during the Franco-Prussian War?
In the 1856 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Crimean War, Russia agreed to dismantle their naval base in Sevastopol and to respect the 1848 Straits Convention, which forbade the passage of Russian warships through the Dardanelles. However, they broke the treaty during the Franco-Prussian War, as Britain was powerless to stop them without French and Austrian support, weakening international law and peaceful diplomacy.
What was the Alabama arbitration?
The Alabama was a warship built in Britain and used by the CSA to sink Union ships during the Civil War. Afterwards, the USA demanded compensation, saying the UK had violated its neutrality. Gladstone agreed to abide by arbitration in order to promote peace and lawfulness. During the hearing, the claims increased to include indirect losses, forcing Britain to pay over £3m. This seemed humiliating, but also strengthened US-UK relations.
What was Gladstone’s overall policy on the colonies during his first ministry?
Gladstone wanted to reduce the financial and military commitment of the Empire, resisting calls for expansion and intervention
What happened on the Gold Coast during Gladstone’s first ministry?
Unrest on the Gold Coast in 1872 forced Gladstone to accept a military expedition in 1873, despite his desire to reduce financial and military commitment to the Empire
What happened in South Africa during Gladstone’s first ministry?
When diamonds were discovered in South Africa, the Cabinet agreed to British control over the diamond fields but took no action; the initiative was taken by the British Governor of Cape Colony, who annexed the areas, leading to greater British control.
What happened in Fiji during Gladstone’s first ministry?
Australian settlers dominated the constitutional monarchy set up in 1871 and petitioned Britain to annex the island. Gladstone obstructed this, but Disraeli annexed it when he took power in 1874.
What happened in Canada during Gladstone’s first ministry?
Gladstone was unable to prevent Canada from imposing duties on imported goods from Britain, which ignored the government’s desire for free trade
How did Disraeli react to Gladstone’s foreign policy? How did Gladstone respond?
Disraeli made great play of Gladstone’s confused colonial policy: he appeared to dislike the costs of colonialism, but did not stop its expansion, and looked weak on the Canadian trade issue. The Conservatives’ approach of protecting British interests and enthusiastically supporting Empire led partially to their victory in 1874.
From 1876-78 Gladstone became very effective at attacking Disraeli’s foreign policy, especially over the issue of Turkey
What happened with Turkey in 1875-78?
In 1875 uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina (controlled by the Ottomans) presented an opportunity for Russia to expand its infulence, under the guise of helping the Bosnian Christian minority. Disraeli sided with Turkey, opposing the Russian and Austrian Berlian Memorandum (which treatened retaliation if Turkey did not reform Bosnia’s government), as Russian influence could threaten Britain’s route to India.
In 1876, Turkey ruthelessly crushed unrest in Bulgaria. Disraeli dismissed reports of atrocities as “coffee house babble”, but they were true, leading to harsh criticism of Disraeli, especially by Gladstone. Gladstone came out of retirement to return to politics and published a pamphlet criticising Disraeli.
In March 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey. Disraeli wanted to support Turkey, backed by much of the public but foreign secretary Derby, Salisbury, and Carnarvon were against this. Britain sent the navy and troops to the Mediterranean to prevent Russia gaining control of the Dardanelles, causing Derby and Carnarvon to resign and Salisbury to become foreign secretary. Russia, however, advanced to Constantinople, imposing a harsh truce on Turkey, exacerbating calls from the British public for war with Russia.
In 1878, the Congress of Berlin met to make peace, with Britain, Austria, and Germany unifying to demand of Russia a fairer settlement. This happened, causing Disraeli to claim he had brought back ‘Peace with Honour’ (despite Salisbury doing most of the work), that Russia’s Mediterranean ambitions had been defeated, that Constantinople was safe, and that the British route to India had been preserved. In addition, the weakening of the Dreikaiserbund meant Russia eventually drew closer to Britain, and part of Bulgaria gained independence, but also that tension remained in the Balkans.
What was Gladstone’s mission?
To pacify Ireland
Why did Ireland pose a problem for Gladstone?
Religious unrest: majority Catholic population vs established Anglican Church of Ireland, unpopular tithe (10% tax to the Church), Gladstone’s Anglicanism vs Liberal party values
Unfair economic situation: Protestants owned most of the land despite being a minority
Fenian outrages: the Fenian Brotherhood, a revolutionary movement for independence, carried out attacks in the UK, which shocked Victorian Britain
