British Empire 2 Flashcards
How did the Empire contribute to the British effort in WW1? (Numbers)
1.4 Million- India
2 Million Black Africans
100,000- New Zealand
400,000- Australia
600,000- Canada
15,000- Caribbean
How did Indians contribute to WW1?
1/3 of soldiers on Western Front were Indians in 1914
Contributed more soldiers than the rest of the Empire
Didn’t need to introduce conscription, all soldiers were volunteers.
Fought on Western Front as well as Middle East and Africa
74,000 Indian soldiers died
In 1917 the Indian government ‘donated’ £100 million
Secretary of State for India (Montague) promised opportunities for more self government as a result
How did Africans contribute to WW1?
The first shots of WW1 were fired in the Gold Coast, Africa 3 days after first declaration of war by Alhaji Grenshi
2 Million Black African men served though not in fighting roles because the British didn’t want Africans fighting alongside them so took roles carrying supplies and weapons and stretcher bearers.
There was a 20% death rate.
Egypt became an official protectorate in 1914.
1.2 Million Egyptians recruited to fight in Egypt and Middle East.
100,000 Egyptians fought in Europe.
Helped develop independence movements led to first Pan-African Congress in 1919.
In 1918 South Africans were allowed in Versailles peace talks.
How did the White Dominions contribute in WW1?
In the beginning relied mostly on volunteers.
Including-
4,000 Canadian First Nations people
1,000 Indigenous Australians
2,500 Maori Kiwis
ANZAC soldiers served at Gallipoli (April-Dec 1915) against the Ottomans despite it being a disaster it became a National Myth
Canadians’ own national myth was in the Battle of Vimy Ridge (April 1917)
By 1917 1/3 of British munitions on Western Front were produced by Canada
Created a debate around the relationship between Britain and the Dominions.
But, Australians voted against conscription twice.
French-Canadians in Quebec protested in riots against conscription in March 1918
J B M Herzog lead a republican movement questioning imperialism
What contribution did South Africa make to British war effort in WW1?
Boer Commander General Smuts formed the South African Defence Force.
And became part of David Lloyd George’s Imperial War Cabinet to advise.
136,000 white South Africans fought in Middle East/on Western front.
What are ‘mandates’?
Previous German and Ottoman colonies hitch now belong to the League of Nations but mostly divided between Britain and France.
Categorised A/B/C on how developed they are and therefore how long they need to stay under League of Nations control.
What Mandates do Britain gain?
Mesopotamia
Palestine
Tanzania
(Au and NZ also gain some mandates)
What were the three promises Britain had made about Palestine?
T.E Lawrence promised the Arabs of Palestine independence to get their support against the Ottomans in WW2
Sykes and Picot made an agreement with France in 1916 that Britain would take Palestine as a mandate
The Balfour Declaration (1917)
What was the Balfour declaration (1917)
The Foreign Secretary expressed sympathy for the Zionist movement to Walter Rothschild the leader of the British Jewish community in a letter
Didn’t necessarily mean a separate Jewish state, just a national homeland
Wanted to allow the rights of Arab Palestinians
Could have been in part due to pressure for the large Zionist community in America
Who were the Zionist Commission and Muslim & Christian Association?
Zionist Commission arrived in Palestine in 1918, sponsored by the British.
Muslim & Christian Asscociation- group of Palestinian Arabs
Between 1918 and 1920 the two groups came into conflict with deaths on both sides
Jewish Immigration in Palestine from 1918
Between 1918 and 1931 the Jewish population of Palestine increased from 9% to 16.9%
Numbers of immigrants increased massively with the rise of Hitler in Europe.
1929- about 5,000 Jewish immigrants to Palestine
1933 (the year Hitler came to power)- about 30,000
Why were Britain interested in having control of Palestine?
Bordered Egypt
Could provide a buffer to their control of the Suez Canal
Oil
Why were Britain interested in having control of Palestine?
Bordered Egypt
Could provide a buffer to their control of the Suez Canal
Oil
British Rule of Palestine in the 1930s
The High Commissioner, Samuel, tried to bring members of both groups into government roles.
1931- tried to pass a law that would restrict Jewish land acquisition (the Arabs felt they were taking all the land, on average there was an acre of land for every Jewish person as the Jewish National Fund was purchasing land to settle the immigrants) but this was stopped by Zionist movements in the US and UK.
1937- The Peel Report tried to divide the land but was stopped from asking by the Arabs
1937-1939- British Respond to the Arabs Revolt with violence. 25,000 troops mobilised to arrest 9,000 Arabs
1939- took a more pro-Zionist approach but capped number of Jewish migrants per year to 15,000 for 5 years because they intended to make Palestine independent in 10 years and wanted to keep Arab population higher
The Arab Revolt (1936-1939)
Uprising of Palestinian Arabs against the British Rule, spread nationalistic sentiment in the press and education to mobilise Arabs from all classes.
Strikes, resisting tax payment, insisting ban on Jewish immigration and land sales, plead for independence.
Also attacked British and Jewish settlements
Met with over 20,000 British troops- suggested over 5,000 were killed in this violence.
The Peel Commission (1937)
Published July 1937
Admitted the two groups wouldn’t work in the mandate as one.
Instead suggested separate states for Arabs and Jewish with British control of the main Religious cities they argued over.
Idea rejected by 1938.
Arabs didn’t like it because they didn’t want Jewish to have any land
What rebellion to British Rule was there in Mesopotamia/Iraq?
1920- demonstrations by Muslims against British rule including revolt in Baghdad
Some rebellion by Kurds in the north wanting independence
How did Britain respond to Iraqi rebellion?
Military aerial bombardment
How was self-government of Iraq/Mesopotamia granted?
1921- Cairo Conference- Meeting of British with some Arabs to discuss more self-government but Britain still controlled military and foreign policy
1922- Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. Britain put King Faisal I in charge as a puppet ruler. Still had British ‘advisors’ across the government and British control of military bases + the army.
1930- Second Anglo-Iraqi Treaty agreeing both got a say in foreign policy together.
1932- Iraqi ‘independence’ but still a lot of British control of oil industry and ‘advisors’
How did Britain control the oil industry in Iraq?
Even pre- WW1 Britain interested in the oil of Mosul. Agreement with the Turks to have control of oil extraction with the Turkish Petroleum Company where the Turkish Government had a 20% share
Iraqis were promised same 20% share when they became a mandate and TPC remained Iraqi Petroleum Company but Britain didn’t follow their promise
What similarities were there between Iraq and Egypt?
Initial economic interest
Revolt against Europeans
Bombardment
Puppet Ruler
British ‘advisors’
British control their army
‘Independence’ where they keep control of economic interest
What African mandates did Britain gain after WW1?
British Togoland
British Cameroon
Tanzania
South West Africa
What was Colonial Policy in (non- White Settler) Africa 1918-1939?
Rule by Puppet Ruler
Aim to build up economic value of the area (often expected to be funded from own taxes)
Improve living standards
Sudan- 1920- British Government allotted £3M to Gezira Cotton Scheme, Promised to build Irrigation and build a major Dam
East Africa- in 1925 £10M project to improve rail and docks
West Africa- built Agricultural Research Stations, invested in Education
Colonial Development Act- 1929, Britain funded £1M towards Empire projects
What was British Colonial Policy in White Settler colonies of Africa 1918-1939?
Usually ruled directly by Britain with only white population represented in government.
Southern Rhodesia Offered self-government in 1923
Kenya given some self-government in 1920. White Settler population of 20-30,000. Indian settlers and Kikuyu natives excluded from fertile land in Northern Highlands, forced o work in industrialised cities like Nairobi and Mombasa.
1923– Devonshire declaration- due to rise in nationalism of Kikuyu, insisted wishes of Black Africans had to be respected. Improvements in agriculture and education but some very racist ‘master and servant’ laws
South Africa- 1931 given independence bc of Statute of Westminister, White minority controlled internal affairs
What was the Colonial Policy of the Dominions 1918-1939?
Performance in WW1 led to an increase of nationalism and desire for independence, especially in Canada and South Africa. Already pretty much self governing.
1926 Balfour Declaration promised a move towards Dominion Independence
1931- Statute of Westminster stated the dominions should be allowed independence, British laws dont have to be enforced in Dominions, Dominions don’t need British approval to pass laws
Ex-Dominions joined the Commonwealth.Meeting of previous Empire countries to keep a close relationship. Conditions that they have to keep British monarch as their monarch.
What was the Home Rule bill (1914) ?
Bill that would give Ireland their own Parliament like the other dominions.
Its passing was interrupted by WW1. Had it passed it would likely spark civil war in Ireland
Who were the Ulster volunteers?
People in the North of Ireland who were Protestant and wanted to remain a part of the United Kingdom. Named after the Ulster region in the North of Ireland where the Protestants/Unionists tended to be.
Who were Sinn Fein?
Irish political party. Catholic, Republican and Nationalists.
What was the Easter Rising (1916)?
Attempted seizing of buildings in Dublin led by Sinn Fein. Were supposed to use German provided weaponry but the supplier was intercepted so they continued anyways.
66 Irish rebels and 143 British were killed.
How did Britain respond to the Easter Rising?
Dublin was bombed.
Rebels were arrested and given the death penalty.
What happened in the 1918 general election in Ireland?
Sinn Fein won by a landslide slide. Majority of Ireland voted for them apart from some areas of Dublin and the Ulster region.
What happened in the Anglo-Irish war 1919-1921?
IRA guerrilla volunteers supported by Sinn Fein launched frequent surprise attacks on the British and their Black and Tan army. Included attacking government property, raids to fund them with money and weaponry, assassinating prominent British and Unionists.
What support did the IRA have from the Irish?
Volunteers (15,000 total, ~3,000 at a time)
Vast intelligence networks
Sinn Fein voters
Patriotic support
What was Bloody Sunday?
21st November 1920
Michael Collins’ IRA squad gunned down 19 British informants.
Later than day the Black and Tans marched into a football game and fired into the crowd, killing 12
How was the Anglo-Irish war resolved?
Mid 1921
Sinn Fein agreed to negotiate with Britain - their guérilla warfare was faltering.
Creates the Free Irish State, a British dominion.
Results in civil war between North and South of Ireland and in 1923- Northern Ireland becomes an art of the United Kingdom.
Irish relationship with the British following the Anglo-Irish War
When Dominions are granted freedom Ireland refuses to join the Commonwealth
Ireland does not take part in WWII so not to fight alongside Britain
How was Canada impacted by the end of World War I?
Built up its Industry during the War and continued to do so afterwards.
Became less reliant on Britain’s imports
Traded more with the USA
How was India impacted by World War I?
Contributed £146 million to the war effort, faced with inflation and shortages
Tax on imports rose from 11-25%
Indian industry built u more as a result.
Amount of its imports being from Britain fell from 2/3
How were Australia and New Zealand impacted by World War I?
Very reliant on British market because their main exports were food like mutton.
Struggled a lot
How was Britain impacted by World War I?
Spent £35 billion on the war- very in debt
Had to remove the GBP from the gold standard
Industrial competitors increased as their industry had been focused on munitions for the war.
Had to pull out of their overseas investment
British Trade and Economy in the 1920s
Attempted to continue as usual
Returned to Gold Standard in 1925
Imported mostly primary sector goods and exported manufactured goods
However, the demand for their goods like iron and textiles had not grown much
Free trade- very few tariffs only 9% of industry protected with tariffs
Trade deficit- importing more than they were exporting.
British Trade and Economy after the Wall Street Crash
Unemployment at 25% of the workforce- especially hit Scotland, Wales and northern England
15% of global GDP wiped out
Income decreased, so demand for manufactured goods decreased.
Had to import more because Britain didn’t have large primary sector goods industry.
Imports and Exports with the Empire increased.
Switched from free trade to imperial preference which lasted until 1973.
Abandoned the Gold Standard again in 1931. £ loses value -> cheaper of foreign consumers
10% tariff on most imports, except those coming from the Empire -Ottawa Conference (1932)
But, also had trade agreements of lower tariffs with Scandinavia and Argentina.
British Trade by 1934 Stats
% exports to empire increased to 44%
Total value of exports decreased £525 -> £378
% imports from Empire increased to 35%
Total value of imports more than exports and lower than 1913 £769 -> £727
What was the Empire Marketing board?
Formed in 1926
Propaganda sector of the government
Encouraged people to buy goods from the British Empire
The Rowlatt Acts (1919)
gave the Imperial Legislative Council power to arrest Indians and hold them for up to two years without trial.
Eventually not implemented because of Indian Resistance but show that the British were aware of the rise in Indian nationalism and were trying everything in their power to stop Indian Independence.
The Amritsar Massacre, 13th April 1919
Reginald Dyer, a British officer ordered 50 men to shoot into a crowd of 15- 20,000 innocent Indians for disobeying a curfew order he had set out because of the murder of 5 Englishmen. Shooting lasted 10 minutes, only stopped because they were running low on ammunition.
Britain claims 379 died and 1,200 injured but the INC put the death toll 1,000-1,500.
What was the British Response to Amritsar
Saw Dyer as the saviour of the Raj by British in India
He was suspended for these actions however, his future pay was raised by a support campaign who collected £26,000 for his retirement.
Didn’t receive as much support from the British government.
What was the Indian response to Amritsar
Led to an increase in Gandhi’s popularity in the Indian National Congress
What was the primary control retained by the Viceroy under the Government of India Act, 1919?
major areas of government e.g. defence and foreign policy
The Viceroy’s powers were significant, maintaining authority over crucial aspects of governance.
How were the members of the Legislative Council appointed under the Government of India Act, 1919?
Members were appointed rather than elected, and actions had to be defended to the legislative council
This indicated limited democratic involvement in governance.
What was the composition of the Legislative Council?
104 elected out of 144 total members in Lower house
34 elected out of 60 total members of the upper house
This reflects the partial representation of elected officials in the legislative process.
What could Provincial Councils control under the Government of India Act, 1919?
Elected councils that could control local government, health, education, and agriculture
This decentralization aimed to provide some level of self-governance.
What was Britain’s hope regarding the steps taken towards Dominion status in India?
To weaken criticism of British rule
The changes were seen as a way to placate Indian demands for greater autonomy.
What was the Simon Commission (1929-1930)?
A commission established to review the 1919 Government of India Act, led by politician Sir John Simon
The commission had no Indian representatives.
What did the Simon Commission conclude?
A federal system of government across India uniting including provinces and princely states. And that the provinces should be allowed more power, But keeping the Viceroy in control of Defence, foreign and internal affairs.
This recommendation aimed to restructure governance in India.
What was the main criticism directed at Britain by Nehru in the Nehru Report?
Mocking Britain for not allowing Indians to have any say
This reflected the growing discontent among Indian leaders.
What were the Round Table Conferences?
Meetings held in London in 1930 and 1931 between Indians and British to debate the future governing of India.
The conferences were a response to growing demands for self-governance in India.
Why did Gandhi not attend the first Round Table Conference?
He was in prison following the salt march (1930)
The salt march was a significant act of civil disobedience against British salt laws.
What was the main outcome of the Round Table Conferences?
No agreements were met due to disagreements among various groups (British, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, the Princely States, Untouchables)
Groups included the British, Hindus, Princely states, Muslims, Sikhs, and different castes.
What did the Government of India act (1935) propose?
Federation of India’s states and provinces
Provinces to become self-governing (but still controlled by British Governors)
Increase votership from 7 million to 35 million
Why was the 1935 Government of India act rejected?
Indian National Congress didn’t want it because it wasn’t dominion status
Princely states wanted to stay independent
Some Muslims didn’t want to become a minority
The aftermath of the Amritsar Massacre
Britain lose their moral high ground justification
Led to Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement (1920-1922)
More unity between different groups in India
Gandhi before his return to India in 1915
Lawyer. educated in England
From 1893 working in South Africa working against segregation.
1915 returned to India and became the President of the INC
What was the Satyagraha?
non-violent nationalist protests led by Gandhi.
3 major ones 1920-1942
Intended to appeal to British moral conscience when they eventually suppress the movements
The Untouchables and relationship between Muslims and Hindus
1934 Gandhi resigned from the INC because of disagreements with his methods. Spends the next 5 years working for Untouchables rights. Lives with a group of them, refuses to go to weddings unless they’re untouchables marrying other Castes, renames them to ‘children of God’.
In 1924 he fasted for 3 weeks to promote unity between Hindus and Muslims
President of the Indian National Congress 1915-1919
Gandhi wanted to reject industrialisation and return to India as a majority agricultural society.
Supported anti-British protests
Intentionally dressed like a peasant to be relatable to most of the country
The Non-cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
Tried to attain self-government by refusing to cooperate with the British Government.
In response to the Rowlatt acts.
Included-
Revoking labour from British industries
Refusing to buy British goods,
Ended after the Chauri Chaura incident
The Chauri Chaura incident
February 1922
22 policemen who had been firing on peaceful protesters were killed by the crowd.
The Civil Disobedience Acts (1930-1931) (1932-1934)
For the cause of self-rule for India. Started with the Salt March. Organised by Gandhi
Gandhi at the Second Round table conference
walked in unprepared
Refused to give Muslims and untouchables a designated number of seats in government. caused more division
The Salt March (1930)
Protested the British monopoly on salt. 1882 Salt Act declared that Indians could not collect or sell their own salt.
Gandhi walked 240 miles with his supporters to Dandi where he would collect some salt in the sea to break this law.
British authorities attacked the crowd and arrested 60-80,000 people including Gandhi and Nehru.
After his release from prison in 1931 Gandhi agreed to call off the satyagraha for a second round table conference.
Who was Nehru, what did he di and what did he believe?
Hindu Indian nationalist leader and an ally to Gandhi. British Educated Lawyer.
Wanted to modernise and industrialise India.
Was a socialist and secularist.
Took a leading roll in many of the satyagraha, completed the Nehru report in 1927, President of the INC in 1929 and was the first Prime Minister of India
Who was Muhammad Ali Jinnah, what did he believe and what did he do?
Muslim nationalist leader, didn’t really like Nehru and Gandhi, wanted to secure rights for Muslim Indians in a self governed India.
Not a pacifist like Gandhi
By 1940, he was in favour of a Muslim separate state
Was the first Governor-General of Pakistan and the leader of the All-Indian Muslim League
Who was Subhas Chandra Bose, what did he believe and what did he do?
Worked with the Nazis and Japanese
Created the Indian National Army in 1943 after fleeing India
President of the UNC in 1938
Was a radical nationalist leader.
What evidence is there to suggest people celebrated empire 1914-1947?
The King’s Christmas speech broadcast on the BBC was written by Rudyard Kipling and addressed the whole empire, the time 3pm was chosen to accommodate most of the Empire
The Wembley Exhibition (1924) had over 26 million visitors
Empire Day continued to be celebrated
The film ‘The four feathers’ (1939) set around the invasion of Sudan
What was the Fall of Singapore (1942) in WW2?
British defence strategy in South-East Asia was to focus on one naval base in Singapore which they had been building up since 1919.
Idea was that it would be so strong that it could defeat the Japanese and deter them from taking other British colonies like India, Australia or Hong Kong
However in February 1942 the British were forced to surrender to a much smaller Japanese force.
130,000+ troops were taken as Japanese Prisoners of War
How were British PoW treated by the Japanese?
Forced into doing humiliating labour for the Japanese like building railways in front of the natives they were supposedly ‘more civilised’ than.
Conditions meant disease and starvation was rife which they were forced to work through.
Given very little sleep
1/4 of the soldiers died
How did the Empire contribute to WW2?
Around 1 million Australians
2.5 million Indians
Canada trained pilots and sailors and supplied £800M worth in goods to troops
Despite Ireland not joining the war, they contributed 43,000 volunteers
Empire contributed just as many troops as Britain did themselves
Air space of the empire used to train RAF
African labour was often used underpaid or not at all paid
Why would Neville Chamberlain adopt a policy of appeasement with the Nazis?
World war- he was willing to lose parts of Europe in order to keep control in Africa/Asia
Could not afford another war in Europe
Avoiding having to enter war
Britain was prioritising the empire and popularity of rising independance movements e.g. Ireland, India, Palestine, Egypt
Which colonies in South East Asia did Japan seize in 1942?
New Guinea
Hong Kong
Singapore
Phillipines
Malaya
Burma
Parts of China
Also, had bombed parts of Australia and tried to invade India in 1944
Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA in WW2
Saw the fall of Singapore as an end to Britain’s ‘white invincibility’
Created the Indian National Army in 1943, contributed of 30,000 Indian PoW
Fought against the British in Burma
Worked with the Germans and Italians
Burma in WW2
Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army (BIA) in 1941
Fought against the British with aid from the Japanese
In 1944 switched to fight against the Japanese because they thought they were more likely to get independence under the British
Britain said they would rebuild in Burma before granting independence so they switched sides again
and the Anti-Fascist Organisation renamed to the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League
Fighting in North Africa in WW2
Germans and Italians occupying areas of Northern Africa
Britain wanted to preserve Carl of Suez
Battle of El Alamein (1942) pushed Germans out of North Africa
India in WW2
Initially protests stopped in 1939 to support war effort
Viceroy Linlithgow declared India’s entry into the war without consulting the INC
Fall of Singapore (1942) relit nationalism and INC began demanding immediate independence which the British repressed and began favouring the Muslim League
To try appease Churchill sent Stafford Cripps in March 1942 to grant dominion-hood but this was too little too late
The Quit India movement was launched in August 1942
The Quit India Movement (1942)
3rd and final major satyagraha of mass civil disobedience demanding that Britain leave India completely and immediately.
Resulted in mass arrests by the British including Gandhi and Nehru who stayed in prison until the end of the war
The movement eventually became violent with riots and protests nationally as well as widespread strikes.
Police stations, railway lines, government buildings and telegraph posts were destroyed
What impact did the Quit India movement have on teh Muslim population?
Muslim League was supported by the British because of their willingness to help the war effort.
Muslim League gained more of teh Muslim population’s vote.
Went from 4.6% to 75% of the Muslim vote
Shows a rise in Muslim nationalism
What happened when the British tried to put the INA on trial (1945) ?
the INA soldiers received much support from the Indian population despite that they worked with the Nazis during the war, to the extent that Nehru took back up his lawyer job to defend them on trial
The Bengal Famine (1943)
More than 3 million Indians died in the famine
Much of the damage was worsened by British Policy of continuing to export rice from India to the British troops
Nehru called this ‘the final judgement on British rule in India’
What was the idea of Direct Action Day (1946)?
declared by Muhammad Ali Jinnah in August 1946, intended for Muslims to suspend business and damage the British economically.
To convince Britain into the idea of Pakistan
Resulted in mass violence.
The Calcutta Killings
Erupted mass violence between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta and the surrounding area.
Military guessed that between 7,000 and 10,000 were killed in about a week
Over 1,200 fires lit to dispose of the bodies
Trucks full of remains and bodies in the street
Highlights the division in social groups no matter how hard Gandhi fasts for unity, divide and rue goes too deep
British politics post WW2
Labour government led by Clement Attlee elected in a landslide 1945 election
Prioritised social welbeing of British over Empire
Invests in policy like the NHS (1948)
Unprofitable areas of Empire let go, including Palestine, Burma and India
Still Labour weren’t exactly anti-imperialist, might have kept India if they could afford to and kept much of Africa because of the economic aspect
Pakistan and India Independence (1947)
Viceroy Lord Mountbatten put in charge of this process, determined to leave on his lucky day, 15th August 1947 even though he was given until 1948.
Determined that there would be an Islamic and a Hindu state- separate.
Partition was drawn up by Cyril Radcliffe using out of date census data, having never visited India, in 5 weeks.
Boundaries were announced on the day of partition/independence
Aftermath of partition
Boarders not given in advance so there was a mass migration across.
This created much violence and 1-2 million deaths
300,000 Muslims fled from Delhi alone
Cases of women being killed by their own family to avoid them being abducted and raped
What were some challenges faced by Britain post-World War II regarding Palestine?
Economic crisis, simultaneous difficulties in India, fragile treaties with Egypt and Iraq for oil, social conflict/tension, pressure from the US, increasing Jewish migration
What percentage of the population and land did the Jewish community hold in Palestine in 1948?
33% of the population and 7% of the land-holding
What was a key ideological motivation for the Jewish community in Palestine?
Nationalism and divine right to the land
What significant event in 1939 affected British authority in Palestine?
The outbreak of war in 1939 made it challenging for the British to send troops to suppress Palestinians.
What decision did the British Authorities make in 1939 regarding Jewish settlers in Palestine?
They agreed to limit the number of Jewish settlers arriving in Palestine.
What actions did Zionist extremists take against British authorities during 1946?
They started to terrorize the British authorities.
What was the outcome of the British Cabinet’s decision in February 1947 regarding Palestine?
They decided to hand over the future of Palestine to the United Nations.
How many Palestinians were evicted from villages and major towns by the time the British left on May 14, 1948?
At least 200,000 Palestinians.
What agreement did the Jewish Agency make with King Abdallah?
King Abdallah would take the West Bank, and the Zionists would take the remaining 80% of Palestine.
What was the British position in the UN partition vote in November 1947?
They abstained in the partition vote.
What was the Fifth Pan-African Congress in 1945?
Meeting across a week in October 1945, in Manchester of African and Caribbean leaders
Catalyst for future African nationalism movements
What was trusteeship?
Type of colonial rule ‘for the interest’ of indigenous people, introducing more into government and having more sympathy for them
Who was Viceroy Irwin?
Viceroy of India 1926-1931
Took up a policy of trusteeship
Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931 which released Gandhi + 90,000 other Indians from prison.
How had the number of Indians in Government increased by 1945?
Indians in the Indian Civil Service outnumbered British
Who was Edwin Montagu?
Secretary of State for India 1917-1922
Passed the Government of India Act of 1919
Who was Viceroy Linlithgow?
Viceroy of India 1935-1943
Passed the Government of India Act of 1935
Entered India into WW2
Suppressed the Civil Disobedience movement
Bengal Famine
Kept Indian industry weak
Who was Sir Harry Haig?
Indian Colonial Administrator
Accepted that India would have to become Allies to the British eventually
But
Called Gandhi a menace and opposed his campaigns
Who was Sir Donald Cameron?
Governor of Tanganyika 1924-1931 and of Nigeria 1931-1935
Increased exports of nuts and palm oil in Nigeria to develop their economy
Built harbours and rail in Tanganyika
Helped indigenous enterprises into the civil service
Admired Lugard
Who was William Hailey?
Part of the Civil Service of the Raj
Lead the African Survey in 1938 which influenced future policy in Africa
Who was Sir Andrew Cohen?
Colonial Administrator who had sympathy for indigenous Africans and saw a need for decolonisation in Africa
Helped African nationalists progress for independence
How were Britain weakened economically in WW2?
In 1942 Japan invade Malaya where Britain imported much of their Rubber and Tin from
54% of Britain’s merchant fleet were sunk by the Germans in the war
1947- The Sterling Crisis- Britain had promised the Us they would exchange £ for $ but then countries started rapidly exchanging for $s so the £ was losing value
1949- Britain devalued the £ (this shows that it was no longer strong) and had to stop exchanging £s and $s
Rationing only ended in 1954
Post WW2 Empire economics
Colonial Development acts-
1940: £5million per year- wrote of some debts of colonies with Britain
1945: £120 million total, instilled 10 year plans in colonies to develop
Britain relied on its empire for imports of palm oil, nuts, rubber, tin, bauxite and food. Often the African labour used was underpaid and in bad conditions
How did the Cold War support the British Empire after 1945?
US supported British Empire through loans etc. In order to resist communism spreading in Asia/Africa
What was the Truman Doctrine (1947)?
Us congress allot $400 million to support fighting communists in Turkey and Greece.
Britain follow America’s lead and also aid in the fighting
How much money did Britain receive from the Marshall Plan?
$3.3 billion
Most amount of any country
Used to uphold Empire
How did the Cold War not support the British Empire after 1945?
The USA believed the best way to prevent communist nationalist movements is through gaining independence.
How were Britain reliant on the USA following WW2?
Relied on USA militarily and financially
Replaced by the USA as ‘global police’
How did the USA support Britain militarily?
Followed USA’s entrance into Korean War
Called off Egyptian invasion in 1956 by Britain and France
Supplied nuclear weaponry through Polaris Sales Agreement
Where was Britain’s ‘sphere of influence’ following WW2?
Controlled western influences ‘East of the Suez Canal’
What was the European Economic Community (EEC)?
Formed in 1957
Decline entrance
Precurser to the EU intended to help Western Europe rebuild after WW2
Britain was denied entrance in 1963 and 1967
Finally joined in 1973
- shows they had enough economic power in their Empire to not have to join-
How was British influence over dominions faltering?
1954- SEATO formed
lead by Americans
Included Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, US and UK
Moving from relaying on Britain to relying on America
What was the Anglo-American Mutual Defence Agreement (1958)?
Americans agree to assist Britain in making their own nuclear weaponry
What was the Polaris Sales Agreement (1963)?
USA agreed to supply Britain with Polaris ballistic missiles
What % of shares did Britain have in the Suez Canal?
44%
Why was the Suez still so important post 1945?
50% of Britain’s oil was transported via the canal
When did Egypt obtain independence from Britain?
1922
Why did Britain still have troops in the Suez Canal?
1936- Anglo-Egyptian Treaty
Allowed Britain to keep 10,000 troops in Suez Zone
How did Colonel Nasser come to power in Egypt?
Took part in a military coup to overthrow King Farouk
Declared President in 1953
When was the Suez Canal nationalised?
26th July 1956
What was the agreement between Egypt and Britain about the Suez (1954)?
British soldiers agreed to leave within 20 months ahead of the nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company for free access through the canal
Why did Eisenhower not want to trade arms with Egypt?
Egypt = Arab
Arab countries don’t like Israel, would attempt to invade
USA allies with Israel
What did America fund in Egypt?
Construction on a new Aswan Dam -modernising reform, will produce hydroelectric power
What were Egypt trading with the USSR/ east for?
Deal with Czechoslovakia for Tanks and Aircrafts/ weaponry
What was Britain/France’s lan to deal with the Suez Crisis?
Have Israel invade Egypt
Take ctrl of Suez Zone to ‘protect’ from Israel
Why did Britain and France’s plan fail?
Had not clues the US in
They ordered them to call of the invasion
In 1947 how much money did Britain make from rubber in Malaya?
$200 Million
How much money did Britain earn from industry in 1947?
$180 Million
What was the Hard Currency Pool?
Pool of stored British $ to trade/invest in America
When was the £ devalued between 1947-1967?
1949 by Clement Atlee
1967 by Harold Wilson
How much was the pound devalued by in 1967?
14%
Whats the big deal about devaluing the pound?
means the economy is weak and other people won;t want to use the pound
If its worth less then imports are more expensive but other countried will want to trade more
When were there colonial development acts?
1940
1945
When was the Colonial Devellopment Corporation created?
1948
% of imports from Europe vs Empire in 1954
48% from Empire
24% from Europe
% imports from Europe vs Empire in 1965
30% from Empire
31% from Europe
% exports from Europe and Empire in 1965
28% from Empire
% exports from Empire vs Europe in 1965
28% from Empire
37.5% from Europe
When was the Tanganyika Ground Nut Scheme?
Lasted from 1946-1951
How much money was spent on the Tanganyika groundnut scheme?
£49 million
Why did the Tanganyika Groundnut scheme fail?
the terrain could not be cultivated
In 1956 what % of British investment went into the Empire?
58%
What was the EFTA?
the European Free Traed Association
rival trading bloc of western european nations to rival the EEC
When did Canada become a dominion?
1867
How did the independence of India and Pakistan change the Commonwealth?
no longer just a club of white former dominions
What did India do in 1950 which further changed the Commonwealth?
Became a Republic, no longer kept the Queen as head of state
Why did South Africa leave the Commonwealth in 1961?
Apartheid laws
Britain was pressured by other members of the Commonwealth- Ghana, Cyprus, India, Malaya and Canada- to force South Africa out of the Commonwealth
What was Aparteid?
White minority of South Africa trying to keep control over the majoritive black population with racist laws prohibiting their voting rights, and enforcing segregation
What benefits did having the Empire bring Britain?
Informal ties over other countries
Economic benefits of trade
Some semblance of keeping global influence
By 1967 how many members did the Commonwealth have?
25
Which two nations left the Commonwealth?
South Africa in 1961
Ireland in 1949
When and where was the 5th Pan-African Congress?
1945 in Manchester, England
Who was Sir Andrew Cohen?
Colonial official of Uganda
Advocated for de-colonisatiion, protecting the rights of Black Africans and ending Apartheid
Wrote the Cohen Report (1947)
What was said in the Cohen Report (1947)?
Decolonisation should happen slowly through gradual reforms
Use as little violence as possible
Create stable, democratic independent nations
Outlined the Gold Coast as the optimum place to begin decolonisation as it was stable and had an educated middle class
What did MacMillan say in the ‘Winds of change’ speech (1960)?
Speaking against Apartheid in South Africa
Have to accept that African independence will mean handing self-rule over to Black Africans
How did WWII impact the Gold Coast politically?
From 1945 the Gold Coast had significant nationalists pushing for more autonomy
When were the Accra Riots?
February 1948
Initially how were the Gold Coast protesting British Imperialism?
Economic boycotts of European imports
Where did the Accra Riots break out?
Peaceful protest of WWII veterans about lack of pensions and jobs following the war
British police shot on the crowd of protestors
What happened as a result of the Accra Riots?
Nkrumah was imprisoned
The Watson Commission was set up
What did the Watson report (1948-49)?
The Burns Constitution was inappropriate
The Gold Coast should be allowed to draw up its own constitution
What was in the Burns Constitution (1946)?
Set up a 30 person legislative council for the Gold Coast but said the final power went to the British Governor
Who was the Governor of the Gold Coast?
Charles Arden-Clarke
What did Arden-Clarke believe?
Wanted to facilitate the move to national independence
Wanted to build up a strong relationship between Nkrumah and Britain
Made Nkrumah Prime Minister of the Gold Coast in 1952
Who created the CPP (Convention People’s Party) in 1948?
Kwame Nkrumah
What education did Nkrumah have?
Catholic missionary school
Government Teacher Training College
University in Accra
Further Education in the USA
How did Nkrumah help the Gold Coast gain its independence?
Running groups like the United Gold Coast Convention and the CPP
Negotiations with British and Arden-Clarke
When did the Gold Coast become independent?
1957
What were Nkrumah’s political beliefs?
African Nationalism
Pan-Africanism
Marxist-Socialism
Keeping a stable working relationship with the British
Nkrumah after Ghanaian independence
Faced a military coup in 1966
Spent rest of his life in exile (hermitcraft reference) in Guinea
What happened in the Gold Coast elections 1950?
CPP and Nkrumah win 2/3 vote despite being in prison
How had colonial policy historically been in Kenya?
British established harsh Hut Taxes, forcing black Kenyan’s to work for British in low paying or forced labour jobs
British forced native Kenyans to live on reservations and held a monopoly on land
Forced Kenyan men to wear identity discs to limit internal movement
What was the ethnic make-up of Kenya?
About 23,000 Indians and 10,000 white settlers
How was land ownership distributed in Kenya?
1 million Kikuyu living on 2,000 square miles of land
Who was the main nationalist leader in Kenya?
Jomo Kenyatta
What education did Kenyatta have?
Scottish Missionary School
Further Education in England
How long did Kenyatta spend in England?
17 years
What political roles did Kenyatta take?
President of Kenya Africa Union
Following Banning of KAU in 1952
Leader of Kenya African National Union from 1960 (elected while still in prison)
What was Kenyatta lecturing about around Kenya 1948-1951?
Lectures campaigning for return of native land and independence for Kenya
How did the Mau Mau rebellion impact Kenyatta?
1952 Kenyatta was arrested, accused of associating with the Mau Mau
How long was Kenyatta kept in prison?
1952-1961
How did Kenyatta contribute to Kenyan independence from his release in 1961?
Immediately went into talks with the British
Agreed on independence in Dec 1963
How was Kenyatta as a president?
Represented more Black Africans in government
Favouritism for the Kikuyu people
1964 made Kenya a one party state
Who was Governor of Kenya?
Evelyn Baring Jr.
What was Mau Mau?
A violent nationalist movement of specifically Kikuyu people
What were the Mau Mau’s grievances?
Losing fertile land in the highlands to white settlers
High unemployment
Poor quality of living conditions
What tactics did the Mau Mau use?
Assassination of Kikuyu Chief who condemned them
Guerilla attacks
How long did the State of Emergency last in Kenya?
1952 to 1960
What was Operation Anvil?
Britain’s response to the Mau Mau
Internment camps
Over half of Nairobi’s Kikuyu population was interned without trial
How many people had the British put into camps?
Between 160,000 and 320,000
What were the conditions of the internment camps in Kenya?
Forced labour, disease, famine, torture, sexual violence, murder
Orchestrated abuse of detainees as ‘interrogation”
Who was Barbara Castle?
Labour M.P who built up evidence of these conditions in an article including visiting the camps herself
Pushed for it to be talked about in parliament
In particular brought to light the Hola Camp massacre of 1959
What was the Hola Camp Massacre?
88 prisoners beaten up by guards
11 died
77 remained seriously injured
Deaths covered up as illness
Which tribe did the British favour in Nigeria?
The Fulani- saw they had a ‘logical’ hierarchy system
What nationalist party was favoured by the Fulani in the North of Nigeria?
The Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
Lead by Ahmad Bello
What was the make-up of Northern Nigeria?
Main tribe- Fulani
Conservative and Muslim majority
Anti-Western sentiments
Mostly wage labourers
What did the NPC want?
Protect rights of Northern and Muslim Nigerians
What nationalist party was most popular in the East of Nigeria?
The Action Group
What tribe was the majority in The Action Group?
The Yoruba
What did the Action Group want?
Independently governed federal states
What nationalist party was most popular in the South of Nigeria?
The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)
Lead by Azikiwe
What tribe was the majority in the NCNC?
The Ibo
What was the make-up of the South of Nigeria?
Advanced from oil industry and ports
Christian
A lot of Western Influence
Who was the governor of Nigeria?
Sir John Macpherson
Understood decolonisation had to happen
Worked with Nigerians to facilitate independence
How many languages were spoken across Nigeria?
500+
What did the Richard’s Constitution (1946) do?
Allowed for more representation of native Nigerians in government but the Governor kept most power
What did the Macpherson constitution (1951) do?
Created a larger suffrage in Nigeria
Created National Council of Ministers
What impact did the 1954 federal elections have on nationalist movement in Nigeria?
Created further revisions to the constitutions
Introduced 9 ministers from various regions in Nigeria
When did South, West and Eastern Nigeria become independent states?
1957
When did Northern Nigeria become a self-governing state?
1959
When did Nigeria get full independence?
October 1960
Where was Azikiwe educated?
Western Education in Nigeria
Further study in USA
What career did Azikiwe come from?
Journalism
Owned/Edited a Newspaper
What political party did Azikiwe form?
The NCNC in 1944
How did Azikiwe lead Nigeria to independence?
Negotiating with the British and other tribes
What % of the Malayan population in 1947 was of Malayan ethnicity?
50%
What % of the Malayan population in 1947 was of Chinese ethnicity?
38%
What was the UMNO?
United Malay National Organisation
Malayan independence party supporters ethnically Malayan
What was the MCA?
Malaysia Chinese Association
Supported the Malayan Chinese population
What was the MCP?
The Malayan Communist Party
Why was Malaya so economically important to Britain?
It was a large exporter of both Tin and Rubber
Why was there heightened tension between the ethnicities in Malaya?
Large amounts of Chinese immigrants
Tensions worsened during Japanese WWII occupation
When were Chinese Malayans labour striking?
1945-1948
How did Britain alter the definition of Malayan citizenship in June 1947?
Required to be able to speak Malayan and English
How did the government of federated Malaya work?
Executive council
Legislative Council
Local Governments
When was Malaya federated?
January 1948
How were the MCP launching attacks?
Guerilla attacks on British rubber plantations
When did Britain declare a state of emergency in Malaya?
June 1948
What happened at the Batang Kali Massacre (1948)?
British troops surrounded a rubber plantation of Chinese Malayan workers
Women and children separated from men who were interrogated and then shot
24 civilians killed
1 escaped
How did Britain attempt to cut off supplies to the MCP?
Moving civilians into fenced off concentration camp like ‘new villages’ so they could monitor movement if any supplies to rebels
Who was Sir Henry Gurney?
British High commissioner assassinated by MCP in October 1951
Became a hero because he ‘protected’ his wife
How did Sir Henry Gurney help Britain crush the MCP?
His hero status helped to win over the ‘hearts and minds’ of the Malayan population
What % of the vote did the UMNO and MCA get together in the Malayan 1955 elections?
81%
What was the Reid Commission (1955)?
Drew up new constitution of Malaya
When did Malaya gain full independence?
1957
How did Malaya stay under British influence following independence?
part of the Commonwealth
Stayed in the Sterling Area
When did the ‘Malayan emergency’ end?
1960
When was Malaysia created?
1963
When was Singapore given self government?
1947-1948
Only British population could vote
What was the State of Singapore Act (1958)?
Singapore had full self government but remained in British Empire
Why did Britain pass the State of Singapore Act?
Leader of Singapore- Lim Yew Hock worked strongly to suppress communist rebels
How many troops did Britain send into Malaya?
40,000
How many people were kept in British ‘new villages’?
400,000
What was the CAF?
The Central African Federation
Formed in 1953
Containing South Rhodesia, North Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Why was the CAF created?
Federating CAF would allow own state-level laws
Protect N. Rhodesia and Nyasaland from potential invasion from S. Rhodesia
Why did Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia resist the CAF?
Southern Rhodesia trying to increase their influence over other parts of the federation
What was the NAC’s (Nyasaland African Congress) aims?
End the CAF
What methods did the NAC use?
Campaigns
Civil Disobedience
Dr Banda made speeches
How did the British respond to the NAC’s campaigns?
Declared a State of Emergency
Banned NAC
Imprisoned NAC leaders and 1,300
What happened at Nkata Bay (1959)?
Group of 20 unarmed peaceful protester resisting the arrest of NAC leaders shot on by British
51 killed in the eventual fallout
What did the 1959 commission about Nyasaland state?
accepted that the state of Emergency was an overreaction
When did Nyasaland gain independence?
1964
Who became the leader of Milawi?
Dr Hastings Banda
When did Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) gain independence?
1964
Who became the President of independent Zambia?
Kenneth Kaunda
What party was Ian Smith the leader of?
The Rhodesian Front Party
What was the Rhodesian Front’s aims?
Reject black voting rights and shared run either black majority population
Keep CAF
What methods did the RF use?
They had a small army they used to threaten
Imprisoned black nationalist leaders
What consequences did Southern Rhodesia have for rejecting Britain’s demands of Black majority rule?
UN placed economic sanctions limited who they could trade with
Not recognised internationally as an independent nation
What was the Unilateral Declaration of Independence?
Signed by Smith in 1965
Separated themselves from British influence by force
What conflict was there in Rhodesia following the UDI?
Civil War between White and Black nationalists from 1965 to 1980
Resulted with Black majority rule in 1980 as Zimbabwe
Between 1946 and 1957 how many Brits immigrated to the Dominions?
1 Million
What was the British Nationality Act 1948?
Made all commonwealth citizens of Britain, encouraging migration into Britain as the population was falling
When did rationing end in Britain?
1954
Why did countries like Canada, New Zealand and Australia encourage British immigration?
They had a labour shortage- willing to pay more to British workers
What % of the British population were in contact with family in Dominions?
25% in 1948
Til when did Britain have national service for young men?
1960
Why did migration to the Dominions slow down in the 1960s?
Standard of living improved in Britain
End of rationing and national service
Return of soldiers and colonial administrators to Britain
How did trends of immigration change 1947-1967?
Pre 1950- mostly from Europe
1950s- Caribbean
1960s- Indian and Pakistani
1967- Lots of Asian Kenyans due to Kenyatta taking up a policy pushing non-Black Africans out of Kenya
How many Caribbean immigrants came to the UK in 1958?
115,000
By what year did the British Black population reach 1 million?
1967
What was the Empire Windrush?
A boat which arrived in the UK June 1948 bringing 500 mostly young men into Britain, most from Jamaica
How did Britain respond to the Empire Windrush?
The Prime Minister Attlee tried to prevent it from entering and wanted to divert the ship to East Africa
11 MPs write to Attlee protesting the arrival of this ship
Who was Oswald Mosley?
Member of the British fascist political party and founder of the Union Movement (1948) which was heavily anti-immigration and used racialised charicatures of Black people in its pamphlets.
Ran in the area of London which included Notting Hill
What % of the vote did Mosley get in his constituency?
8.1%
Who was Peter Griffith?
Conservative MP running in an area of Birmingham using very openly racist campaign messaging.
He won his seat from the Labour candidate in 1964
What films were being made set within Empire 1947-1967?
Lawrence of Arabia
Khartoum
She (based n the H. Rider Haggard book)
How long did the Black and White Minstrel Show run on the BBC?
1958-1978
How many viewers would the Black and White Minstrel Show receive?
16 million at its peak
What backlash was there to the Black and White Minstrel Show?
In 1967 a complaint was send to the BBC about it as a Campaign Against Racial Discrimination.
The BBC claimed it was not offensive
What was the Commonwealth Immigration Act (1962)?
Ended the Nationalities Act (1948) and created a priority programme of Commonwealth immigrants based on skills in demand.
Was often abused to make it harder to let Black and Asian immigrants into the country
How popular was the Commonwealth Immigrants scat?
70% of the population supported it
What was the Race Relations Act (1965)?
Made it illegal to refuse service based on race and set up the Race Relations Board to review complaints
What was Caribbean Voices?
A radio show started in 1946 intended to highlight the work of Caribbean writers
What were ‘Teddy Boys’?
A subculture of young people who would attack black members of the population. Led to riots in Nottingham and Notting Hill in 1958
What % of the British population supported a curb on immigration (1962)?
90%
When was the first Notting Hill Carnival set up?
1966
What did a 1965 survey of North London reveal about British Racial attitudes?
1/5 of white population injected to working with Black and Asian people
1/2 would object to living next door to Black and Asian families
90% did not support interracial marriage
What was Till Death Do Us Part (1965)?
A sit com including a character who was intended to satirise bigoted racist attitudes but was met with genuine support from the viewers
When were the Commonwealth Games established?
1954
How did sport continue the legacy of Empire?
Britain spread sports such as Cricket, Rugby and Snooker across its Empire.
Resulted in Indian Cricket team becoming very popular and touring the UK in 1967
When was Empire Day abolished?
1962
How did the Commonwealth affect the English language?
Borrowed words like Pyjamas, Bungalow, Loot from Indian languages
MUMBO JUMBO and Zombie (Cleo) from African languages
How has Empire messaging continued in music?
A Night at the Proms traditionally plays a series of imperial songs on the last night including Jerusalem, the national anthem and rule Britannia.
