Breast Augmentation, Mastopexy Flashcards
A 36-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. She wears a size 34B brassiere and wants the size increased to a full C cup. Height is 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) and weight is 126 lb (57 kg). She feels her breasts are reasonable in appearance but has been encouraged by her husband, from whom she is separated, to seek enhancement. The risks of the surgery, including loss of nipple-areola sensation and the need for prosthesis maintenance over time, are discussed. She opts to proceed with surgery, and 375-mL saline breast prostheses are placed subpectorally through inframammary fold incisions. Which of the following is most likely to cause patient dissatisfaction after the procedure?
A ) Continued separation from her husband
B ) Deflation of the breast prostheses
C ) Hypertrophy of the breast scars
D ) Inability to breast-feed
E ) Inadequate breast size
The correct response is Option A.
Thorough patient evaluation before surgery, including screening, discussion of risks and complications, and the need for realistic expectations, is necessary to optimize patient satisfaction after surgery. This is especially true of aesthetic surgery.
Despite these efforts, patient dissatisfaction occurs and can be extremely difficult to manage. Patient dissatisfaction is usually associated with failures in communication and patient selection criteria. Determining which patients are unsuitable for operation is a skill acquired with experience. General guidelines include patients who (1) have unrealistic expectations, (2) are excessively demanding, (3) have dissatisfaction with a previous surgical procedure, (4) are psychologically unstable, and (5) have a minimal deformity.
In the scenario described, the patient has an unrealistic expectation that the surgery might save her marriage. Because of her motivation for surgery, she is unlikely to be happy, despite a very good result, unless the expectation of reconciliation has been fulfilled.
The other options are possible causes of postoperative dissatisfaction; however, preoperative counseling and education of the potential complications allow for enhanced acceptance if they do occur.
A 47-year-old woman is referred by her primary care physician to evaluate a suspected intracapsular rupture of her prosthesis on the left identified during routine mammography. She underwent primary augmentation mammaplasty with subglandular placement of single-lumen silicone breast prostheses in 1990. Physical examination shows a smaller breast on the left. An MRI is requested. Which of the following findings on MRI is most likely to confirm the diagnosis?
A ) Double wall sign
B ) Linguine sign
C ) Multiple echogenic lines
D ) Reverse double-lumen sign
E ) Snowstorm sign
The correct response is Option B.
MRI, mammography, ultrasonography, and CT scanning have all been used to diagnose silicone breast prosthesis rupture.
Although each modality has specific strengths and weaknesses that may make a particular modality the study of choice for an individual patient, MRI of silicone breast prostheses reports the highest sensitivity and specificity for detection of silicone prosthesis rupture.
Of the options listed, only the linguine sign is consistent with intracapsular silicone prosthesis rupture and represents the prosthesis shell floating in free silicone gel.
The double wall sign, also known as Rigler sign, is a radiographic sign of pneumoperitoneum.
Snowstorm sign and echogenic lines may be seen on ultrasound examination.
Water suppression or a reverse double-lumen sign would not be expected findings in a single-lumen device but may have a role in double-lumen devices.
A 26-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding right mammary hypoplasia and a superiorly displaced nipple-areola complex. Examination shows a depressed right chest wall. The pectoralis major muscle is anatomically normal. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
A ) Anterior thoracic hypoplasia
B ) Pectus carinatum
C ) Pectus excavatum
D ) Poland syndrome
E ) Sternal cleft
The correct response is Option A.
The most likely diagnosis in this patient is anterior thoracic hypoplasia. Anterior thoracic hypoplasia is a syndrome composed of an anterior chest wall depression resulting from posteriorly displaced ribs, hypoplasia of the ipsilateral breast, and a superiorly displaced nipple-areola complex. The sternum is in normal position, and the pectoralis major muscle is normal.
Pectus excavatum is the most common congenital chest wall abnormality in which the ribs and sternum form abnormally, resulting in a concave anterior chest wall. Typically, the lower third of the sternum is involved. In the most severe form, pectus excavatum can present with the sternum adjacent to the vertebral bodies associated with cardiopulmonary abnormalities. In contrast, pectus carinatum is a chest wall deformity in which the sternum and ribs are forced anteriorly, creating the appearance of a €œpigeon €™s chest. € Pectus excavatum and carinatum have sternal involvement, but they do not involve changes in the development of the breast.
Poland syndrome is a congenital anomaly characterized by a number of unilateral findings. The classic features of Poland syndrome include absence of the sternal head of the pectoralis major, hypoplasia and/or aplasia of the breast or nipple, deficiency of subcutaneous fat and axillary hair, abnormalities of the rib cage, and upper extremity anomalies. In its simplest form, Poland syndrome may present with only mild hypoplasia of the breast and lateral displacement of the nipple. Complex presentations of Poland syndrome include hypoplasia or aplasia of the chest wall musculature (serratus, external oblique, pectoralis minor, and latissimus dorsi muscles) or total absence of the anterolateral ribs with herniation of the lung.
Sternal cleft is a rare congenital defect of the anterior chest wall resulting from a failure of midline fusion of the sternum. Depending on the degree of clefting, there are complete and incomplete forms. The sternal cleft is clinically significant because of the potential for the lack of protection to the heart and great vessels. Sternal clefts are not associated with aplasia or hypoplasia of the breast.
- A 20-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. Height is 5 ft 4 in (163 cm) and weight is 120 lb (54 kg). Physical examination shows mammary hypoplasia. She currently wears a size 34B brassiere and would like to wear a size C brassiere. Which of the following is the most appropriate option for breast enhancement?
A ) Autologous fat transfer
B ) Breast Enhancement and Shaping System (BRAVA)
C ) Saline prostheses
D ) Smooth gel prostheses
E ) Textured gel prostheses
The correct response is Option C.
Augmentation mammaplasty is one of the most common plastic surgery operations. During the moratorium on silicone gel prostheses between 1992 and 2006, the saline breast prosthesis became the prosthesis of choice. When a saline prosthesis ruptures, it decreases in size as the saline leaks out and is absorbed by the body. The deflated side is usually noticeable to the patient and can be compared to the nondeflated side for further distinction. The saline may leak out slowly, taking a week or longer to be noticeable.
When the Food and Drug Administration lifted the moratorium on silicone gel prostheses, it stipulated that women must be 22 years of age to use the gel prosthesis. Therefore, for the patient described, the only option is saline.
Saline prostheses are firm to the touch, and on very thin patients the normal rippling can be palpated through the skin, especially noticeable along the lower, outer pole where there is no pectoral muscle coverage.
Autologous fat transfer is reported in the literature but would be difficult to do on this very thin patient. Harvesting enough fat to achieve the goal of a size C brassiere would be difficult.
The BRAVA system can increase breast size but only minimally, so it is unlikely that this would give the patient enough volume for her goal of a size C brassiere.
The deflation rate of saline prostheses is debated in the literature, related to prosthesis type (textured versus smooth), fill volumes, and physician technique. It is agreed that the expected lifespan of the saline prosthesis is 10 years.
A 42-year-old woman with Grade 3 ptosis of the breasts is scheduled to undergo augmentation mammaplasty and mastopexy. Which of the following operative decisions is most likely to have an adverse effect on the outcome of the procedure?
A ) Augmentation mammaplasty and use of vertical mastopexy technique
B ) Augmentation mammaplasty and use of a Wise-pattern mastopexy technique
C ) Mastopexy and placement of 450-mL saline prostheses in a dual-plane pocket
D ) Mastopexy and placement of 200-mL silicone prostheses in a subpectoral pocket
E ) Performance of the operation in two stages
The correct response is Option C.
Augmentation mammaplasty and mastopexy is a complex procedure that can increase the risks and difficulties beyond those of each one performed independently. A mastopexy is designed to raise the nipple-areola complex and reshape the breast by resecting skin and tightening the parenchyma. In direct opposition to this shaping, an augmentation enlarges the volume of the breast and expands the skin envelope. Further, mastopexy techniques involve elevation of flaps that require adequate vascularity, while prosthesis placement devascularizes the breast and puts direct pressure on the remaining circulation.
The larger the prosthesis, the greater the adverse effect on vascularity. This can lead to early problems with nipple-areola complex loss, skin flap loss, prosthesis infection and exposure, and resultant deformities.
Larger prostheses are also associated with long-term complications of soft-tissue attenuation. This results in tissue thinning, stretching, atrophy, rippling, and recurrent ptosis. Despite conflicting studies, prosthesis size of 350 mL is considered the crossover to large prostheses.
Despite these risks, most patients want to have both operations performed simultaneously. If these patients are accepted, it is the surgeon €™s responsibility to minimize complications.
Some surgeons prefer to perform augmentation and mastopexy in two separate operations to control the result and reduce the complication rate.
Placement of 200-mL silicone prostheses in a subpectoral pocket is less likely to cause problems because of their modest size.
Vertical mastopexy and Wise-pattern techniques are both acceptable procedures that can be applied to patients with Grade 3 ptosis.
Which of the following innervates the nipple-areola complex?
A ) Intercostal
B ) Lateral pectoral
C ) Long thoracic
D ) Supraclavicular
E ) Thoracodorsal
The correct response is Option A.
The classic teaching ascribes nipple innervation to the fourth intercostal nerve. More recent anatomical studies have confirmed that the nipple is innervated by a rich subdermal plexus of nerves that provide both tactile and pressure sensation. This plexus receives innervation from the lateral and anterior cutaneous branches of the second to fifth intercostal nerves. This plexus explains why the nipple can retain sensation despite extensive surgical procedures.
The lateral pectoral innervates the pectoralis major muscle. The long thoracic innervates the serratus anterior muscle. The supraclavicular innervates the skin of the upper breast. The thoracodorsal innervates the latissimus dorsi muscle.
Which of the following innervates the nipple-areola complex?
A ) Intercostal
B ) Lateral pectoral
C ) Long thoracic
D ) Supraclavicular
E ) Thoracodorsal
The correct response is Option C.
Two different studies show that prosthesis volume relative to the skin envelope has a potential adverse effect on the sensation of the nipple-areola complex. The type of prosthesis and the pocket placement have no influence on sensitivity. No difference was found between the periareolar and inframammary incision approaches. Other factors, such as a previous history of breast-feeding or minor complications, were not associated with sensory alterations.
Which of the following sequelae is more likely to result from the use of textured silicone gel prostheses rather than smooth silicone gel prostheses?
A ) Capsular contracture
B ) Hematoma
C ) Malposition
D ) Rippling
E ) Rupture
The correct response is Option D.
The use of textured prostheses is associated with a significant rate of rippling when compared with smooth prostheses. One study reported over a two-fold increase. Visible rippling can be minimized with subpectoral implantation as well as by limiting the use of these prostheses to patients with more native breast tissue. Rippling is more pronounced with saline-filled prostheses.
Rippling occurs when the breast skin and soft tissue are thin. This rippling will worsen with time because of the skin stretching and thinning. The key to treatment is to thicken the breast skin or change the prosthesis characteristics. Overinflation of saline prostheses is thought to minimize rippling; however, one recent study did not show any difference in the incidence of rippling in underfilled saline prostheses. Surgical treatment for rippling is usually incomplete. Dermal grafts have been used with some success to thicken the rippled breast skin. Changing a saline prosthesis to a cohesive silicone gel prosthesis will also improve rippling. Various flaps can also be used to reinforce the thinned breast skin.
Textured surface prostheses are superior to smooth prostheses in decreasing capsular contracture. However, this advantage is minimal when using saline prostheses in a subpectoral pocket.
The incidence of hematoma formation is similar for both types of prostheses.
Rupture rates for textured gel and saline gel are similar; however, textured saline prostheses have a higher rate of deflation than smooth saline prostheses.
Malposition rates are not higher with the use of textured prostheses.
A 40-year-old nulliparous woman comes to the office because she is dissatisfied with the “saggy” appearance of her breasts following a 120-lb (54-kg) weight loss. Physical examination shows bilateral Grade 3 ptosis. Which of the following additional findings on examination of the breasts is most likely in this patient?
A ) Flatness of the upper pole
B ) High inframammary fold
C ) Lack of axillary fat roll
D ) Lack of excess skin
E ) Laterally displaced areolas
The correct response is Option A.
The types of breast deformities seen following massive weight loss are relatively new. To adequately manage these patients and assess outcomes, it is important to understand the defect. Classification systems exist for breast ptosis for other causes; however, these are based mainly on nipple position. Breast deformities after massive weight loss vary significantly. Patients typically present with severe breast ptosis (Grade III), medialization of the nipple-areola complex, lateralization of the breast mound, and extension to a lateral axillary fat roll, which often extends well into the back. The inframammary fold is often in a lower position because of deflation of the entire skin and connective tissue envelope. Beyond the typical breast changes of glandular tissue loss and ptosis, there tends to be more asymmetrical volume loss in the massive weight loss breast, and there is more of a deflated and flat appearance of the breast (particularly a flat upper pole). Skin laxity is very apparent, and the degree of excess skin can be significant.
A 24-year-old woman is undergoing endoscopic transaxillary augmentation mammaplasty. Which of the following is most appropriate to preserve sensation in the medial aspect of the upper extremity?
A ) Avoiding dissection into the axillary fat
B ) Blunt dissection near the clavicle
C ) Identification of the sensory nerves within the axilla
D ) Positioning of the prosthesis subpectorally
E ) Preservation of the lateral pectoral nerve
The correct response is Option A.
During transaxillary augmentation mammaplasty, prevention of sensory changes to the medial aspect of the upper extremity requires a subdermal dissection and avoids dissection into the axillary fat. Branches of the intercostobrachial and medial brachial cutaneous nerves provide sensory innervation to the medial upper extremity. Both nerves course superficially through the axillary fat posterior to the lateral border of the pectoralis major muscle. Dissection within the axillary fat risks injury to these nerves with subsequent anesthesia or paresthesia of the inner arm.
Identification of the nerves within the axilla requires dissection into axillary fat and risks injury to the sensory nerves. Sensory innervation to the medial aspect of the upper extremity is not affected by the positioning of the prosthesis (subpectoral versus subglandular) or dissection near the clavicle. The lateral pectoral nerve provides motor innervation to the lower third of the pectoralis major muscle.
A 35-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. A preoperative mammogram is most indicated if the patient’s history includes which of the following?
A ) A grandmother diagnosed with breast cancer at age 73 years
B ) A mother diagnosed with breast cancer at age 45 years
C ) Personal history of breast cysts
D ) Personal history of fibroadenoma
E ) A sister diagnosed with ovarian cancer
The correct response is Option B.
Among the risk factors for breast cancer, family history is the most significant. It can be divided into two broad categories: familial breast cancer, which most likely results from changes in multiple low penetrance genes coupled with environmental influences, and hereditary breast cancer, which results in high penetrance mutation in a single gene.
Familial breast cancer is relatively common and conveys a modest elevation in risk compared with genetic breast cancer, which is rare but associated with high risk.
A family history of breast cancer has been demonstrated to increase the risk of breast cancer in multiple studies. Breast cancer in a first-degree relative increases the risk of breast cancer, and that risk decreases as the age of the affected relative increases (ie, it is a 2.3 relative risk factor if the affected relative is under 50 years of age; it is 1.8 if she is over 50). Individuals whose first-degree relatives have bilateral breast cancer have an increased risk of 5.5 times the normal population.
A 48-year-old woman comes to the office because she is dissatisfied with the “sagging” appearance of her breasts. Physical examination shows the location of the nipples 1 cm above the inframammary fold bilaterally. The majority of breast tissue is below the fold. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
A ) Grade 1 ptosis
B ) Grade 2 ptosis
C ) Grade 3 ptosis
D ) Pseudoptosis
The correct response is Option D.
Regnault defined the degree of ptosis by evaluating the relationship of the nipple to the inframammary fold.
In pseudoptosis, the nipple is above or at the level of the inframammary fold, with the majority of the breast tissue below. This gives the impression of ptosis.
In Grade 1, or mild ptosis, the nipple is within 1 cm of the level of the inframammary fold and above the lower contour of the breast and skin envelopes. In Grade 2, or moderate ptosis, the nipple is 1 to 3 cm below the inframammary fold but above the lower contour of the breast and skin envelopes. In Grade 3, or severe ptosis, the nipple is more than 3 cm below the inframammary fold and below the lower contour of the breast and skin envelopes.
A 45-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. She wears a size 32B brassiere; height is 5 ft 3 in (160 cm), and weight is 130 lb (59 kg). Subglandular placement of saline prostheses is planned. Which of the following is the primary advantage of using saline rather than silicone prostheses in this patient?
A)Easier detection of rupture
BLess capsular formation
C)Less wrinkling
D)Lighter prosthesis
E)Lower risk of leakage
The correct response is Option A.
Although both silicone and saline prostheses rupture at a similar rate, a saline rupture is more easily detectable because the saline is resorbed in the body. The deflated breast will be smaller in volume. Subtle changes, such as decreased upper pole fullness or increased softness, may be the only clues to silicone rupture on physical examination. Ultrasonography or MRI may be needed to confirm the diagnosis.
Saline prostheses are firmer than silicone; they are more likely to be palpable than silicone prostheses as well. Neither prosthesis has been associated with systemic immune syndromes, and both prostheses produce capsular contracture, wrinkling, and leakage.
A 28-year-old woman comes for follow-up evaluation 2 weeks after undergoing bilateral augmentation mammaplasty with subpectoral placement of 325-mL, round, smooth saline prostheses. She is now concerned that both prostheses appear “too high.” Physical examination shows fullness in the upper quadrants of both breasts. Which of the following interventions is most appropriate?
A)Administration of oral zafirlukast
B)Application of a circumferential breast band
C)Injection of corticosteroid into the inframammary crease
D)Open capsulotomy
E)Percutaneous release of the inframammary crease
The correct response is Option B.
The most appropriate recommendation is breast band application. Breast shape following augmentation mammaplasty undergoes dynamic changes. The skin envelope and pectoralis muscle stretch under the expansion pressure of the prosthesis. The skin of the lower pole will stretch, allowing the prostheses to migrate inferiorly. Breast massage and a circumferential elastic breast band applied around the superior breast encourage this migration.
Zafirlukast is a leukotriene-antagonist that is used for the treatment of asthma. Preliminary studies suggest improvement in capsule contractures. This drug is associated with potential life-threatening liver complications as well as neuropsychiatric events. Because administration in the scenario described would constitute an off-label use of the drug, extensive discussion with the patient would be required prior to use.
In the past, steroid was injected into the saline compartment of a double-lumen prosthesis in an attempt to decrease the incidence of capsule contraction. This delivery system was uncontrolled and many prostheses migrated beyond the normal limits of the inframammary crease. Postoperative steroid injection has been used with some success for the prevention of recurrent capsule contracture following capsulectomy.
If residual inferior pectoralis muscle fibers are left intact along the rib or capsule contracture develops, open capsulotomy may be required; however, conservative treatment is indicated at this early postoperative period.
Percutaneous release would expose the patient to unnecessary complications of prosthesis injury, bleeding, and inframammary crease malposition.
A 40-year-old woman comes to the office because of firmness of the right breast. Twenty years ago, she underwent augmentation mammaplasty with smooth silicone prostheses placed in subglandular pockets. Which of the following is the most appropriate management?
A)Injection of corticosteroids
B)Treatment with zafirlukast (Accolate)
C)Closed capsulotomy
D)Open capsulotomy
E)Total capsulectomy
The correct response is Option E.
In the patient described with a capsular contracture, the most appropriate option is open capsulectomy. As opposed to open capsulotomy, open capsulectomy removes the entire capsule. Leaving the capsule behind in open capsulotomy can contribute to late seromas. Scar tissue left behind during an open capsulotomy may also prevent the prosthesis and breast from obtaining a natural shape.
Closed capsulotomy is no longer advised for breast prostheses because of the risk of rupturing the prosthesis during the procedure. Open capsulotomy and open capsulectomy with replacement of the prosthesis in the subglandular plane will continue to be associated with higher capsular contracture rates than submuscular or dual-plane placement. These are options for the patient as long as she understands the trade-offs of keeping the prosthesis in this plane.
Zafirlukast (Accolate) is a leukotriene receptor antagonist that is used as a bronchodilator in the management of asthma. The evidence supporting its use in capsular contracture is anecdotal. It is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in capsular contracture; therefore, its use in the scenario described would be considered an ?off-label? indication. As such, zafirlukast cannot be recommended for the routine treatment of capsular contracture
A 24-year-old woman comes to the office 8 months after undergoing a circumareolar mastopexy/augmentation. She is concerned because her areolas are now asymmetric. They were symmetric preoperatively. Physical examination shows that the right areola diameter is 7 cm and the left areola diameter is 4 cm. The most likely cause of this asymmetry is a failure of which of the following?
A)Breast pillar approximation
B)Periareolar de-epithelialization
C)Prosthesis pocket
D)Purse-string suture
E)Skin envelope tailor tacking
The correct response is Option D.
The most likely cause of nipple-areola asymmetry in the patient described is failure in the purse-string suture. Periareolar mastopexy/augmentation has been plagued with inconsistent control of the nipple-areola complex diameter. This mastopexy technique creates concentric resection of periareolar epithelium to elevate the nipple-areola complex and reduce the skin envelope. The etiology of this areola-spreading is the tension of the closure intrinsic to the technique. Use of a permanent suture for the purse-string helps limit the postoperative spreading of the areolar diameter. Introduction of the interlocking polytetrafluoroethylene (GORE-TEX) suture has allowed improved control of areolar shape and diameter. If one of the purse-string sutures breaks or pulls through its dermal attachments, that areola will be subject to the forces of tension and expand in diameter. In the patient described, operative correction involves either replacing the purse-string on the widened side or removing the purse-string on the smaller diameter areola.
Periareolar de-epithelialization is the cause of the tension and is an essential part of the procedure. In patients who are significantly asymmetric, tension of the areolas will also be asymmetric; however, a permanent purse-string suture is crucial in these cases.
Prosthesis pocket and parenchyma shaping sutures will not have the impact on areolar diameter that is described in this scenario.
Envelope tailor tacking relates to final adjustments in periareolar de-epithelialization.
A 32-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. She is concerned about the potential complications with the use of silicone gel prostheses within the first 5 years postoperatively. Which of the following is the most commonly reported complication of the implantation of cohesive silicone gel breast prostheses?
A)Capsular contracture
B)Granuloma
C)Hematoma
D)Infection
E)Rupture
The correct response is Option A.
Cohesive silicone gel is a breast prosthesis option that has been approved by the FDA since 2006. Cohesive gel prostheses have also been called ?gummy bear? prostheses. They maintain their shape because of the increased cross-linking within the silicone gel.
A study by Cunningham followed 1008 patients and 1898 cohesive gel prostheses. Rupture rate was 1.1% for aesthetics and 3.8% for reconstructive procedures. Capsular contracture rates (Baker III/IV) were 9.8/13.7%, and infection was 1.6/6.1%, respectively. Thus, capsular contracture was the most common of the listed complications. The reported incidence of hematoma is approximately 2%.
It should be noted that complications occur more commonly in primary reconstruction as compared to primary augmentation. These findings are important in the preoperative counseling of patients.
A 35-year-old woman comes to the office with her boyfriend for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. She currently wears a size 34B brassiere and is considering having her brassiere size increased to a D cup. She says she is happy with the way she looks in clothes, but the boyfriend indicates he would like to see a little more cleavage when she is in a swimsuit. History includes liposuction of her lateral thighs 6 months ago by a local dermatologist; she was satisfied with the result. She has also had injection of botulinum toxin type A to the glabella 3 times in the last year. Which of the following is the best reason to refuse performing the procedure for this patient?
A) The patient may be being pushed into surgery
B) The patient may be a “surgiholic”
C) The patient may have body dysmorphic disorder
D) The patient may have a personality disorder
E) The patient may have unrealistic expectations
The correct response is Option A.
Most aesthetic surgeons and mental health professionals agree that patients who exhibit even mild signs of psychiatric problems are not good candidates for aesthetic surgery. Many patients present without obvious signs of problems and are unfortunately discovered when postoperative problems arise. However, there are certain groups of patients with easily identifiable characteristics that constitute a red flag: those who are pushed into surgery by others, those with whom you are incompatible, the ?surgiholic? with a long past surgical history, those facing marital or familial disapproval, those with body dysmorphic disorder, the overly demanding patient, and those with unrealistic expectations.
A 25-year-old woman comes to the office because of a 1-week history of erythema and clear drainage from the right breast 6 weeks after undergoing bilateral augmentation mammaplasty. She is afebrile and her vital signs are within normal limits. The drainage from the breast is sent for cultures. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are administered, but no improvement is noted over the next 48 hours. Surgical debridement and explantation of the prostheses are performed. After 7 days, cultures grow Mycobacterium fortuitum. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step?
A) Administration of ciprofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for 6 weeks
B) Administration of ciprofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for 6 months
C) Administration of isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide for 6 weeks
D) Administration of isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide for 6 months
E) No antibiotic therapy is needed because the infected prostheses have been removed
The correct response is Option B.
The most appropriate next step in management is to initiate a 6-month course of ciprofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim). Mycobacterium fortuitum is an atypical, nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM), and it is one of the most common causes of NTM soft-tissue infections. It occurs most commonly in the presence of foreign bodies, such as breast prostheses. The incidence of these opportunistic infections has increased over the years. NTM infections can be more indolent and manifest weeks, or even months, following surgery. They occur most commonly with erythema, swelling, and clear drainage, although purulence may be seen. Fever may be absent. On surgical exploration, exuberant granulation tissue and turbid, odorless fluid are often noted. Routine Gram stains and cultures are usually negative. Therefore, it is imperative to request acid-fast bacilli staining and mycobacterial cultures if suspicion of NTM infection is high. Removal of the prosthesis and thorough debridement of the periprosthetic space, followed by long-term (3 to 6 months) antibiotic therapy, is required to treat this infection. Culture sensitivities should guide the antibiotic regimen, but ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim), clarithromycin, and doxycycline are used commonly for treatment. Reimplantation of the prosthesis should not be considered for a period of at least 6 months.
Isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide are standard antibiotics used to treat tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, not atypical mycobacteria. Although removal of the affected prosthesis is required, long-term antibiotic therapy is an essential part of the treatment.
A 43-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. She has never had any lumps or nipple discharge from her breasts, and has no family history of breast cancer. After discussion, she chooses saline prostheses. She is concerned about breast cancer and inquires about screening. Which of the following screening studies is most appropriate for this patient after augmentation?
A) CT scan
B) Mammography
C) MRI
D) Positron emission tomography
E) Ultrasonography
The correct response is Option B.
Current recommendations for breast cancer screening in women with augmentation mammaplasty include mammography with Eklund views. In the Eklund technique, the prosthesis is pushed back against the chest wall, and the breast tissue is pulled forward and around the prosthesis. The use of this technique increases the sensitivity of mammography for breast cancer. Breast prostheses may affect the visualization of breast tissue, and it has been suggested that diagnostic mammography be obtained instead of screening mammography, even for the asymptomatic patient.
CT scanning has been studied for the evaluation of the breast but is not routinely used as a tool for breast imaging. MRI is recommended for the evaluation of a ruptured silicone prosthesis. The technique has high sensitivity, but lower specificity and high cost. It is not recommended as a screening tool for breast cancer in the general population at this time, but it may play a role in the high-risk patient.
Positron emission tomography is not used as a screening test for breast cancer. It is often used as an adjunct in patients diagnosed with breast cancer to determine if the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body. Ultrasonography may be used for screening but is not recommended because it is very operator dependent. It will often be used as an adjunct to mammography in screening or if a suspected lesion is found.
A 50-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation about improving the appearance of her “saggy” breasts. She has lost 100 lb (45 kg) during the past 18 months by diet. Photographs are shown. Physical examination shows breast deflation and marked ptosis. A Wise pattern mastopexy with augmentation mammaplasty is planned. Which of the following arteries is most likely to provide circulation to the breast gland and nipple during submuscular augmentation in this patient?
A)Intercostal
B)Pectoral
C)Superior epigastric
D)Thoracoacromial
E)Thoracodorsal
The correct response is Option D.
The thoracoacromial artery and vein travel just deep to the pectoralis major muscle, supplying circulation to the overlying breast tissue and skin. Subglandular augmentation mammaplasty disrupts the connection between the thoracoacromial vessels and the overlying breast. This leads to a higher risk of wound-healing complications when placing the prosthesis in the subglandular plane. The submuscular plane of dissection maintains the connection between the thoracoacromial vessel and overlying breast and skin, allowing better potential healing.
Intercostal arteries are multiple and are not completely disconnected with either subglandular or subpectoral augmentation mammaplasty.
The superior epigastric artery provides circulation to the rectus abdominis muscle and abdomen. This artery would be injured with the mastopexy procedure.
The thoracodorsal artery supplies the latissimus dorsi muscle and not the chest.
A 35-year-old woman comes for consultation regarding breast prosthesis removal because she is concerned about her risk of cancer. Specifically, she has read about anaplastic large cell lymphoma in women with breast prostheses. She underwent augmentation mammaplasty with saline breast prostheses 5 years ago. Physical examination shows absence of contracture and satisfactory position. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?
A) Complete blood cell count
B) Evaluation by a hematologist
C) MRI of the breasts
D) Prosthesis removal
E) Reassurance
The correct response is Option E.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) searched its adverse event reporting systems for reports received between January 1, 1995 and December 1, 2010, including information submitted by manufacturers as part of their required post-approval studies. This search identified 17 reports of possible anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) in women with breast prostheses. Although ALCL is extremely rare, the FDA believes that women with breast prostheses may have a very small but increased risk of developing this disease in the scar capsule adjacent to the prosthesis. Based on available information, it is not possible to confirm with statistical certainty that breast protheses cause ALCL. Currently, it is not possible to identify a type of prosthesis (silicone gel versus saline) or a reason for implantation (reconstruction versus aesthetic augmentation) associated with a smaller or greater risk.
When ALCL occurs, it has been most often identified in patients undergoing prosthesis revision procedures for late-onset, persistent seroma. Because it is so rare and most often identified in patients with late onset of symptoms such as pain, lumps, swelling, or asymmetry, it is unlikely that increased screening of asymptomatic patients would change their clinical outcomes. The FDA does not recommend prophylactic breast prosthesis removal in patients without symptoms or other abnormalities.
A patient with suspected ALCL should be referred to an appropriate specialist for evaluation. When testing for ALCL, fresh seroma fluid and representative portions of the capsule should be collected and sent for pathology tests to rule out ALCL. Diagnostic evaluation should include cytologic evaluation of seroma fluid with Wright-Giemsa–stained smears and cell block immunohistochemistry testing for cluster of differentiation and anaplastic lymphoma kinase markers. Any confirmed cases of ALCL in women with breast prostheses must be reported to the FDA.
A 45-year-old woman comes for evaluation 1 year after undergoing vertical mastopexy without placement of prostheses because she thinks her breasts have started to sag. An increase in which of the following breast dimensions has most likely occurred since the patient’s last visit?
A) Breast base diameter
B) Nipple to inframammary crease
C) Nipple-areola diameter
D) Suprasternal notch to inframammary crease
E) Suprasternal notch to nipple
The correct response is Option B.
The nipple-to-inframammary crease dimension is most likely to increase over time. This leads to pseudoptosis (bottoming out) and the appearance of a sagging breast. Pseudoptosis occurs when the breast gland migrates lower than the inframammary crease while the nipple stays in normal position. It is essential that patients be informed that their breasts will eventually sag following mastopexy. Procedures to prevent this from occurring include the use of permanent mesh encircling the breast mound. Mastopexy and reduction mammaplasty share similar operative strategies as well as complications. All techniques suffer bottoming out to different degrees.
Breast base diameter will change very little over time as long as the breast volume remains constant; eg, weight gain can increase breast volume.
An increase in the nipple-areola diameter is unlikely with vertical mastopexy; however, increased areola diameter is associated with periareolar mastopexy. To minimize this complication, a permanent purse-string suture is recommended. Suprasternal notch-to-inframammary crease distance changes very little in comparison with the nipple-to-inframammary crease distance.
The suprasternal notch-to-nipple distance changes very little postoperatively. When a prosthesis is used during mastopexy, this distance will increase; however, the nipple-to-inframammary crease will usually increase to a greater extent.
A 53-year-old woman comes to the office because of unilateral swelling of the breast 5 years after undergoing subglandular augmentation mammaplasty. A diagnosis of anaplastic large T-cell lymphoma (ALCL) is established. Which of the following is most likely to represent the progression of this patient’s disease when compared with a patient who has ALCL but no breast prostheses?
A) A more aggressive clinical course and a poorer prognosis
B) A more aggressive clinical course but a more favorable prognosis
C) A more indolent clinical course and a more favorable prognosis
D) A more indolent clinical course but a poorer prognosis
E) The same clinical course and prognosis
The correct response is Option C.
Anaplastic large T-cell lymphoma (ALCL) is a rare (1 per million) non-Hodgkin lymphoma that has been reported in women with and without breast prostheses. However, increasing case reports suggest an association with breast prostheses, although direct causation has not been established. ALCL associated with breast prostheses has malignant cells infiltrating the periprosthetic capsule or in the periprosthetic fluid collection. It is associated with both silicone- and saline-filled prostheses and seen in patients who have had prostheses for augmentation mammaplasty as well as breast reconstruction. Although the cytology is the same between ALCL associated with and without breast prostheses, ALCL that develops around prostheses tend to have an indolent clinical course and favorable prognosis when compared with systemic ALCL.
A 49-year-old woman is scheduled to undergo subglandular augmentation mammaplasty with silicone prostheses. During the preoperative discussion, the patient asks about postoperative complications with silicone versus saline prostheses. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using silicone in this patient?
A) Their rupture results in an obvious decrease in breast size
B) They are more likely to result in invasive breast cancer
C) They can obscure breast tissue on mammagraphy
D) They may show more rippling
The correct response is Option C.
Silicone prostheses are radiopaque on mammography. Therefore, when placed in the subglandular position, a small percentage of breast tissue is obscured on mammography. Breast prostheses made completely of or in part with silicone have not been shown to cause a delay in detection of breast cancer. Women with breast prostheses are not more likely to develop breast cancer. Women with breast prostheses who have developed breast cancer are not diagnosed at a more advanced stage and do not have a worse prognosis or survival when compared with women without prostheses. Silicone prostheses are less likely to show superior pole rippling when compared with saline prostheses. If a saline prosthesis ruptures, the saline tends to become absorbed by the body, resulting in an obvious decrease in breast size after a few days. When silicone prostheses rupture, the silicone may remain intracapsular. These ruptures may change the breast shape slightly but usually do not change the size and are often subclinical.
A 33-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation because she is dissatisfied with the “sagging” appearance of her breasts. Examination shows grade II ptosis and loss of fullness in the upper pole. A vertical mastopexy is planned. The most common medial innervation to the nipple-areola complex is the anterior cutaneous branches of which of the following intercostal nerves?
A) Second and third
B) Third and fourth
C) Fourth and fifth
D) Fifth and sixth
E) Sixth and seventh
The correct response is Option B.
The most common medial innervation of the nipple-areola complex is mainly 57% from the anterior cutaneous branches of the third and fourth intercostal nerves. The third intercostal nerve accounts for 21.4%. They always reach the areolar edge between 8 and 11 o’clock on the left and 1 and 4 o’clock on the right. The nerve innervation to the nipple-areola complex is important in planning different incisions around the areola in both reduction mammaplasty and mastopexy.
A 25-year-old woman is considering augmentation mammaplasty with silicone prostheses. The patient asks about the associated risks of developing connective tissue disease. Which of the following risk assessments is most accurate in this patient?
A)Increased risk of extracapsular leak only
B)Increased risk of intra- and extracapsular leak
C)Increased risk only if the silicone migrates to the lymph node
D)Increased risk only in the pre-1990 prostheses
E)No increased risk
The correct response is Option E.
Concern regarding an association between silicone breast prostheses and connective tissue disease was raised in the 1980s and early 1990s, eventually leading to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) moratorium of the use of silicone breast prostheses in augmentation mammaplasty. Since then, multiple cohort studies and case control studies in Europe and North America have failed to determine a causative association between silicone breast prostheses and any traditional or atypical connective tissue diseases.
A 23-year-old woman comes to the office for consultation regarding surgical correction of a tuberous breast deformity. On physical examination, which of the following characteristics is most likely in this patient?
A) Absence of the sternal head of the pectoralis muscle
B) Effacement of the inframammary fold
C) Grade III ptosis of the nipple-areola complex
D) Herniation of breast tissue into the nipple-areola complex
E) Macromastia
The correct response is Option D.
Physical examination of a tuberous breast would show herniation of the nipple-areola complex. A constricted inframammary fold, rather than an effaced inframammary fold, is often associated with tuberous breast deformity. Macromastia and/or grade III ptosis of the nipple-areola complex are not standard components of tuberous breast deformity. Absence of the sternal head of the pectoralis muscle is a characteristic feature of Poland syndrome.
A 24-year-old woman with bilateral micromastia comes for consultation regarding augmentation mammaplasty. The patient says she would like her breasts to be “as big as possible.” On examination, which of the following is the most important factor in determining the maximum acceptable prosthesis size for this patient?
A) Breast base width
B) Diameter of the areola
C) Grade of nipple-areola ptosis
D) Maximum manufactured prosthesis volume
E) Pectoralis muscle height-to-prosthesis height ratio
The correct response is Option A.
The most important factor in determining the maximum acceptable prosthesis size in this patient is breast base width. Grade of nipple-areola ptosis, areola diameter, maximum manufactured prosthesis volume, and pectoralis height may all impact overall appearance of the breast but do not have an impact on breast prosthesis size choice.
A 45-year-old woman comes to the office 10 years after undergoing subglandular implantation of textured silicone implants for augmentation mammaplasty. Physical examination shows swelling of the left breast. She is concerned about cancer. Increased incidence of which of the following malignancies is associated with breast implants?
A) Acute myeloid leukemia
B) Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
C) Angiosarcoma
D) Infiltrating ductal carcinoma
E) Malignant fibrous histiocytoma
The correct response is Option B.
Several reports have suggested an association between breast implants and anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL), which is an extremely rare malignancy. In these cases, ALCL has usually occurred several years after implantation as swelling or a mass around the implant and is often associated with a periprosthetic seroma. Treatments have included capsulectomy with implant removal and chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy, though there is no defined consensus regimen. Despite evidence of an increased risk of ALCL in breast implant patients, the absolute risk remains extremely low.
Several large epidemiologic studies have demonstrated a similar or lower incidence of breast cancer (infiltrating ductal carcinoma) among patients who have undergone prosthetic augmentation mammaplasty surgery compared with those who have not. Most cases of ALCL have been in textured implants.
Angiosarcoma and malignant fibrous histiocytoma are two sarcomas that may arise in the breast. Angiosarcoma may be caused by radiation therapy for breast cancer. Neither of these sarcomas has been associated with breast implants.
Acute myeloid leukemia may be associated with radiation treatment to the breast but has not been associated with breast implants.
A 33-year-old woman with no family history of breast cancer undergoes bilateral augmentation mammaplasty with 300 mL of autologous fat per breast. Six months later, she has onset of pain in the right breast. Mammography shows linear clustered microcalcifications in the lower inner quadrant of the right breast, small lipid cysts bilaterally with scattered dystrophic rod-like calcifications in the upper outer quadrants bilaterally, and heterogeneity of the pectoral muscles. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?
A) Baseline mammography between ages 35 and 40 and yearly thereafter
B) Core needle biopsy of the bilateral upper outer quadrants
C) Core needle biopsy of the right lower inner quadrant
D) Repeat mammography at 6 months and 12 months
E) Repeat mammography in 1 year
The correct response is Option C.
Augmentation mammaplasty with autologous fat transfer has become an increasingly popular option for patients desiring modest volumetric improvement. Despite its popularity, there is still some concern regarding its safety and efficacy. ASPS offered guidelines on fat grafting for reconstructive procedures of the breast in 2009. However, caution is recommended in the setting of cosmetic procedures because the impact on radiologic changes in follow-up is still uncertain to date.
Fat necrosis is a nonspecific histologic finding most commonly resulting from surgery, trauma, or radiation therapy. It is common after fat transfer procedures, though often is clinically occult, and detected through follow-up mammography. The mammographic images of fat necrosis range from lipid cysts to findings that are suspected for malignancy such as clustered microcalcifications or spiculated masses. The most frequent mammographic finding in the breast parenchyma after augmentation mammaplasty with fat transfer is bilateral scattered microcalcifications followed by radiolucent oil cysts with or without microcalcification. Microcalcifications represent an evolution in the mammographic appearance of fat necrosis and are usually not present in early postoperative screening, but rather are a relatively late finding that is present months to years after the inciting trauma.
It is imperative that radiologists distinguish between benign and suspected microcalcifications in order to minimize the number of postoperative biopsies and frequent follow-up imaging. Although round, spherical, punctuate, and diffusely scattered calcifications are typical of benign processes, cluster, branching microcalcifications can be indicative of a malignant process and should be worked up. For this 33-year-old patient with no baseline mammography and a suspected lesion within 6 months of the procedure, routine or short-interval mammographic screening is not appropriate. A biopsy of the suspected area is required, and this patient should undergo a core needle biopsy of the clustered microcalcifications of the right breast, while the more benign-appearing calcifications within the upper outer quadrants can be observed.
A 35-year-old woman with tuberous breast deformity is scheduled to undergo augmentation/mastopexy. A smooth, round, cohesive gel implant will be used. This patient is at higher risk for which of the following complications when compared with augmentation/mastopexy performed on a patient without a tuberous breast?
A) Capsule contracture
B) Double bubble
C) Hematoma
D) Nipple-areola depigmentation
E) Rippling
The correct response is Option B.
The classic features of a tuberous breast deformity include a constricted base with a high inframammary crease and herniation of breast parenchyma into the nipple-areola complex producing a large-diameter areola. Variable extent of micromastia is associated as well as breast asymmetry. When a patient has a high and tight inframammary crease, this crease must be released to accommodate an implant and allow correction of the deformity. If this native crease does not fully expand, then a double bubble will occur. Over time, the lower pole skin stretches in response to the implant and this double bubble often improves spontaneously. The incidence of capsule contracture, hematoma, nipple-areola depigmentation, and rippling should be similar to a patient who undergoes periareolar augmentation/mastopexy without a tuberous breast.
A 28-year-old woman is scheduled to undergo vertical mastopexy. She has no history of previous breast surgery. A superior pedicle technique is planned. Which of the following is the dominant blood supply for this pedicle?
A) Deep branches of the internal mammary artery from the fourth interspace
B) Deep branches of the internal mammary artery from the fifth interspace
C) Superficial branches of the internal mammary artery from the second interspace
D) Superficial branches of the internal mammary artery from the fourth interspace
E) Superficial branches of the lateral thoracic artery
The correct response is Option C.
The breast receives its arterial blood supply from multiple sources, and this fact is used to design multiple pedicles for the nipple-areola complex that can work reliably for both mastopexy and reduction mammaplasty procedures.
The superior pedicle receives its arterial blood supply primarily from the internal mammary branch from the second interspace. It is usually about 1 to 2 cm below the surface of the skin just medial to the breast meridian as it approaches the areola and may be localized with a handheld Doppler device during preoperative planning.
The inferior pedicle and central pedicle designs are primarily supplied by branches of the internal mammary system from the fourth interspace. Additionally, there is some accessory input from the intercostal branches at the level of the inframammary fold with the inferior pedicle design. These secondary vessels are typically interrupted in a central pedicle operation.
The medial pedicle design receives its arterial input mainly from the third superficial branch of the internal mammary artery. This vessel may be damaged by previous augmentation mammaplasty.
The lateral pedicle design receives its arterial supply from superficial branches of the lateral thoracic artery.
An otherwise healthy 40-year-old woman comes to the office for augmentation mammaplasty. Mammography 6 months ago showed no abnormalities. Family history is negative for breast cancer. She wants to know if silicone gel implants are safe and what she should do after the procedure to monitor the implant for evidence of rupture. According to the current federal guidelines, which of the following is the most appropriate recommendation to this patient regarding surveillance?
A) MRI 3 years after implantation and every 2 years thereafter
B) MRI every 10 years
C) MRI if symptoms such as chronic myalgia and fatigue develop
D) Yearly mammograms
E) Yearly MRI
The correct response is Option A.
Evidence-based data to confirm the validity of screening patients with silicone implants are lacking. In 2011, the FDA issued recommendations for physicians on the use of silicone gel-filled implants. Recommendations included providing copies of educational brochures, giving appropriate informed consent, maintaining medical vigilance, and reporting adverse events. It also suggested that patients undergoing augmentation mammaplasty get an MRI 3 years after implant placement and every 2 years thereafter. The purpose of these recommendations is not to replace routine cancer surveillance.
A 30-year-old woman comes to the office for augmentation mammaplasty and mastopexy after a 50-lb (23-kg) weight loss. She wears a size 38B brassiere. Physical examination shows grade II ptosis and a sternal notch to nipple distance of 26 cm bilaterally. Simultaneous augmentation mammaplasty with short-T mastopexy using smooth saline-filled breast implants that will be implanted in a dual-plane configuration through an inframammary incision is planned. Which of the following factors puts this patient at highest risk for reoperation?
A) Inframammary implant insertion route
B) Presence of breast ptosis
C) Use of drains
D) Use of saline implants
E) Use of smooth-walled implants
The correct response is Option B.
It has long been realized that combination augmentation mammaplasty operations are more difficult and have a higher revision rate than either operation alone. A recent review of 177 primary augmentation mammaplasty cases found that, of the factors listed, preexisting breast ptosis and simultaneous mastopexy were both linked to a higher rate of reoperation when possible contributing factors were statistically analyzed. Furthermore, increasing grades of breast ptosis were linked with increasingly higher reoperation rates.
Although incision site for augmentation mammaplasty has been markedly linked to the rates of capsular contracture, inframammary incisions have been shown in at least two studies to date to have the lowest rate of capsule formation, with periareolar and transaxillary incisions showing 5 to 10 times higher rates of capsule-related complications.
A 30-year-old woman comes to the office because of a 3-week history of unilateral swelling of the left breast. She underwent subglandular placement of textured silicone breast implants 4 years ago. She has had no trauma, fevers, or chills. A 1-week course of an oral antibiotic prescribed by her family physician has failed to resolve the swelling. On physical examination, the left breast is 300 to 400 mL larger than the right breast. No other abnormalities are noted. Ultrasonography report shows seroma and results are negative for hematoma or mass. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis in this patient?
A) Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
B) Double capsule phenomenon
C) Giant fibroadenoma of the breast
D) Hematoma due to capsule tear
E) Periprosthetic abscess
The correct response is Option B.
The combination of late-onset swelling without signs of periprosthetic infection (fever, cellulitis), no history of trauma, and a negative ultrasonography suggests late-onset seroma, as can occur with a double capsule phenomenon. Late seromas occur as a complication in about 1% of reported breast implant series. This issue seems to be more common in the setting of textured implants, particularly those implants manufactured with an aggressive texturing process. At surgery, a capsule layer is seen lining the pocket, which often contains a substantial volume of serosangineous seroma fluid and a textured implant coated in a tight second capsule at the center of the pocket. Double capsule has been reported in both the subglandular and submuscular positions. A giant fibroadenoma of the breast would have a dominant mass, distortion of the breast shape, and would be visible on ultrasonography. Abscess would be likely to occur with fever, chills, and cellulitis of the breast. Hematoma of this size would be likely to have a history of trauma, breast pain, and external bruising. Although anaplastic large cell lymphoma is a possibility in the differential of late-onset seromas, it is a rare disorder. Seroma fluid, obtained either by ultrasound-guided aspiration or at the time of open surgery, should be sent for cytologic examination and immunohistochemistry to rule out this rare possibility.
A 53-year-old woman comes to the office for evaluation of breast asymmetry. Reduction of the left breast and augmentation of the right breast with implant and autologous fat transfer are planned. She is concerned about fat injection and cancer risk. Which of the following is the most appropriate response regarding mammographic changes after fat transfer?
A) Calcifications warranting biopsy are more likely on the fat transfer side
B) Calcifications warranting biopsy are more likely on the reduction side
C) Masses requiring biopsy are more likely on the reduction side
D) Scarring will be decreased on the reduction side
E) There are no differences between mammographic findings in fat transfer and reduction
The correct response is Option C.
Fat transfer to the breast remains a controversial procedure. There are some concerns about the oncologic safety of fat transfer, and for this reason some authors do not recommend fat transfer in patients with a history of cancer. Another concern about fat transfer is the potential difficulty in screening for malignancy. Rubin, et al. compared mammographic changes after fat transfer with changes after reduction mammaplasty. In this blinded study, radiologists reviewed pre- and postoperative mammograms of patients who had undergone augmentation and fat transfer and reduction mammaplasty. In the reduction cohort, masses requiring biopsy and scarring were more common; other abnormalities, including oil cysts, benign calcifications, and calcifications requiring biopsy showed no differences between the groups.
A 24-year-old nulliparous woman comes to the office for augmentation mammaplasty. She currently wears a size 34B brassiere and wants her brassiere size to be increased to a D cup. She is a good candidate for subglandular placement of implants. Which of the following risks is decreased by the use of the textured silicone shell compared with the smooth silicone shell?
A) Capsular contracture
B) Hematoma
C) Prosthesis malposition
D) Rippling
E) Symmastia
The correct response is Option A.
Texturing of the implant surface has been shown to decrease the rate of capsular contracture when compared with smooth implants when the implants are placed in the subglandular position. The benefit of textured implants may not be present when the implants are placed in a submuscular pocket.
There is no difference in hematoma rates for textured versus smooth implants. Both symmastia and implant malposition are related to pocket dissection and not related to the type of implant placed. In the case of symmastia, the pockets have encroached upon the sternum and are close to each other or are touching. Implant malposition can be related to factors such as inadequate dissection of the pocket, or over-dissection of the pocket. Finally, some studies have demonstrated an increase in rippling with textured implant when compared with smooth implants. However, rippling may be more related to cohesiveness of the gel and fill volumes of the shell, because early reports of experience with the form-stable implant (Natrelle 410) seem to show decreased rates of rippling.
A 49-year-old woman is evaluated because of a traumatic laceration of the right lower eyelid and cheek. Physical examination shows difficulty with eyelid closure, voluntary squinting, and animation. Which of the following branches of the facial nerve is most likely injured?
A) Buccal
B) Cervical
C) Marginal mandibular
D) Temporal
E) Zygomatic
E) Zygomatic
The correct response is Option E.
Anatomically, the orbicularis oculi muscle is divided into three segments: pretarsal, preseptal, and orbital. However, functionally, the orbicularis oculi muscle is divided into the medial inner canthal orbicularis and the extracanthal orbicularis. The medial inner canthal orbicularis is responsible for blinking, lower lid tone, and the pumping mechanism of the lacrimal system. Innervation to the inner canthal orbicularis is from the buccal branches of the facial nerve. The zygomatic branch of the facial nerve innervates the extracanthal orbicularis, which controls eyelid closure, voluntary squinting, and animation. The temporal, marginal mandibular, and cervical branches do not provide innervation to the orbicularis oculi muscle.
Which of the following is the most common complication associated with “donut” mastopexy?
A) Boxy breast shape
B) Increased distance from nipple to inframammary fold
C) Loss of nipple sensation
D) Nipple necrosis
E) Widening of the areola
The correct response is Option E.
A common complication of the “donut” (circumareolar) mastopexy is widening of the areola. This can be minimized by using a Gore-Tex suture placed using the “wagon-wheel” technique and limiting the amount of skin resected to a 2:1 ratio of outside diameter to areolar diameter.
Boxy breast shape is associated with Wise pattern mastopexy. Nipple necrosis is associated with combined augmentation and mastopexy. Increased distance from the nipple to the inframammary fold is associated with vertical mastopexies in which the height of the medial and lateral pillars is too tall. Loss of nipple sensitivity is unusual because there is no parenchymal resection.
An 18-year-old woman comes to the office for evaluation of her breasts. Photographs of the patient are shown. Which of the following statements most accurately describes the anatomy of this patient’s breasts?
A) The areola is normal size although the breast is small
B) The breast tissue is uniformly distributed throughout the breast pocket
C) The inframammary fold is elevated
D) The skin envelope has greater laxity than in a normal breast
E) The underlying musculature is underdeveloped
The correct response is Option C.
The tuberous breast deformity results in a protruding, oblong shape that resembles a tuberous root plant (Latin derivation tuber = to swell). The features noted in the tuberous breast deformity include a constricted breast base, decreased breast parenchyma, abnormal elevation of the inframammary fold, a decreased skin envelope, and herniation of the breast parenchyma through the central breast and into the areola. The areola is large and lacks firm underlying structure, thus allowing the breast tissue to protrude through this path of least resistance. The deformity is also often referred to as a tubular breast, constricted breast, doughnut breast, nipple breast, breast with narrow base, dome nipple, and snoopy dog breast.
The overall etiologic factors leading to the full expression of the constricted breast deformity are still largely unknown and likely involve a delicate balance of anatomic and endocrinologic forces. A constricting fibrous ring at the level of the areola periphery, representing probably a thickening of the superficial fascia coupled with the normally absent fascial layer in the NAC, has been proposed as a likely cause. The ring is composed of dense fibrous tissue made of large concentrations of collagen and elastic fibers arranged longitudinally. It is usually denser at the lower part of the breast and does not allow the developing breast parenchyma to expand during puberty. It has been suggested that a thickening of the superficial fascia combined with the absence of a superficial fascial layer under the NAC is the underlying anatomic/histopathologic cause of the deformity. The cause of the thickened fascia is unknown, although at least one study by Klinger, Caviggioli, et al. demonstrated altered collagen in both disposition and quantity. The same study excluded amyloid deposition as a component of the fibrosis.
The areola in the tuberous breast still contains the normal muscular structures that result in areolar changes with stimulation and temperature changes, although the tissue beneath the areola may be thinned.
An otherwise healthy 28-year-old woman comes to the physician requesting removal of bilateral axillary masses. She states that the masses fluctuate in size and tenderness with her menstrual cycle. She reports that the masses have not had discharge or drainage. Physical examination shows smooth, spongy masses in both axillae. A photograph is shown. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management of this patient?
A) Excise the bilateral axillary masses and skin
B) Obtain bilateral mammograms of the axillary masses
C) Order an MRI of the chest
D) Perform a core biopsy of both axillary masses
E) Perform liposuction
The correct response is Option A.
This patient presents with ectopic breast tissue. In utero, the milk line (galactic band) forms at 5 weeks of gestation. This bilateral structure courses from the axillae to the groin, and normal breasts form in the prepectoral region after there has been regression of the rest of the galactic band. When there is failure of this regression, breast tissue remains in locations outside of the normal breast. The most common location for ectopic breast tissue is in the axillae, although it can be found anywhere along the milk line from the axillae to the groin. Ectopic breast tissue outside of the milk line has been described and is termed aberrant breast tissue.
The tissue found in these ectopic locations is breast tissue with the same characteristics and propensity for disease as normally located breast tissue, and breast cancer has been described in these tissues. In the absence of pathologic findings such as a mass, pain, and skin changes that are associated with breast cancer, there is no strong oncologic indication for excision. If there are findings concerning for a neoplasm, then work-up should be initiated and might include further imaging, core biopsy, and surgery. However, most cases present without pathologic findings and are excised to achieve a more reasonable appearance for the patient, the ability to don clothing more comfortably, and for the obvious social advantages.
In this case, the patient is young, has no complaints, and has no physical findings to suggest a neoplasm. Excision should be offered.
Obtaining bilateral mammograms is incorrect because there is no indication for imaging in this patient based on her age, history, and physical examination. In addition, mammograms of axillary breast tissue are technically unfeasible.
Performing a core biopsy is incorrect as there is no concern for malignancy in this case. In the case of a mass noted within the ectopic axillary breast tissue, then an oncologic workup should be initiated which might include a core biopsy.
An MRI of the chest is incorrect because there is no indication for imaging in this patient based on her age, history, and physical examination.
Reassuring the patient with no further action is not the most appropriate management, as it will not address the patient’s concerns and desires. In the patient who does not request excision or is not an appropriate surgical candidate, then reassurance and surveillance are appropriate.
As this is a young female with axillary breast tissue, liposuction will not improve the excess breast tissue or skin.
A 58-year-old woman with moderate ptosis is evaluated for mastopexy. According to Regnault classification, which of the following best describes the location of the nipple-areola complex in type II breast ptosis?
A) 1 to 3 cm inferior to the inframammary fold
B) 4 cm inferior to the inframammary fold
C) 6 cm inferior to the inframammary fold
D) At or 1 cm inferior to the inframammary fold
E) Superior to the inframammary fold
The correct response is Option A.
Regnault classification of breast ptosis, based on the position of the nipple-areola complex (NAC) relative to the inframammary fold (IMF):
The type of mastopexy performed will depend on the degree of breast ptosis. Breast ptosis is graded using Regnault classification. Type I can be treated with a crescent mastopexy, when the degree of nipple-areola complex elevation does not exceed 1 cm. Type I or II ptosis can be treated with a periareolar mastopexy, when the distance of nipple-areola complex elevation ranges from 1 to 2 cm. Type II and III ptosis is amenable to the inverted-T technique, where the horizontal incision will reduce the distance from the nipple-areola complex to the inframammary fold, while the vertical incision will reduce the base diameter.
