Breadth Topic 1: Changes in organising the military Flashcards
Explain the context and specifics of the 1794 Duke of York Reforms
Following his dismal attempt to lead the British Army to victory in the Flanders Campaign in 1794, the Duke of York was given the administrative role of the Commander in Chief of the British Army, which he carried out tactfully to tackle the issues within the organisation. He was able to restrict the purchase of commissions by removing the lowest officer class available for purchase, establishing a minimum age for commission and ensured officers had to serve in the army for 2 years before being eligible for purchasing commissions. He also created a training college for soldiers, which later became Sandhurst, a world-renowned institution, and created Light Division regiments which Wellington heavily relied on during the French Wars.
Assess the relative importance of the Duke of York Reforms
The Duke of York Reforms made ground-breaking alterations to the outdated British Army, which was in desperate need of reform following its failures in the disastrous Flanders Campaign. Despite their controversy due to the failures of the French Wars and question as to the need to reform, the Duke used his administrative skills to make changes that would pave the way for critical modifications. However, these reforms only had a limited impact because very little could be altered due to the aristocracy that dominated Parliament, which had no desire to change the purchase of commissions as it would disadvantage their sons, so the Duke of York could not extensively reform the military.
Explain the context and specifics of the 1855 Palmerston Reforms
As a result of William Howard Russell’s revealing reports about the state of military affairs in the Crimea and the subsequent fall of the Aberdeen government, new Prime Minister Palmerston set to make changes to the British Army in response to the outcry from readers of Russell’s article. The new War Office, established by Aberdeen, transferred control of supply from Parliament directly to the Army with the scrapping of the Commissariat, along with the Board of Ordinance in May 1855. Additionally, an Army Medical Department, Clothing Department and a Land Transport Corps were created, with the latter replacing the hiring of civilian wagons to transport supplies, and educational requirements were introduced to improve military knowledge.
Assess the relative importance of the Palmerston Reforms
Explain the reasons why the purchase of commissions system of officer recruitment into the British Army endured for so long
The purchase of commissions retained the rigidity of the class system in the army and became outdated in comparison to Victorian society, which experienced a surge of middle class citizens as a result of the Industrial Revolution. However, Parliament, which was primarily made up of aristocrats, reaped the benefits of the purchase system as their sons were able to gain respectable places in the officer class through patronage and secured an investment for when they return home or when they die which their families could ‘cash in’.
Explain the problems caused by the purchase of commissions system
Not only were the cost of commissions heavily overinflated due to the greater demand that resulted in raising prices, the Crown and Parliament were unable to have a say in the staffing decisions of the Army because the officer commissions were largely owned by the buyer. The concept of purchasing commissions alsp began to come into questions as people began to see the lack of sense it made for someone with no formal training in the affairs of war to lead men into battle. This was keeping the Army in an antiquated state and no longer reflected thr class structure of society as the Industrial Revolution, which drove the advancement of war technology, was possible due to the middle class; however, they were not part of the Army because of the overinflated price of commissions and their social superiority over the working class in the infantry. In short, the British Army was in desperate need of reform, starting with the scrapping of the purchase system.
Summarise the findings of the 1855 McNeill-Tulloch Report
The Report unearthed that the majority of deaths in the Crimea were the result of disease and infection of wounds rather than in combat with the enemy, and that the poor health of the troops were attributed to the lack of fresh food. The Army also failed to provide their faull daily ration of food for all units, including the horses, and soldiers has to cook for themselves which was highly impractical when food could be organised on behalf of the Army by the government. Ultimately, the McNeill-Tulloch Report highlighted the systemic failures of the government rather than leaders such as Lord Raglan, and demanded that they made changes to benefit the Army, who could not have bettered the conditions in the Crimea without government intervention.
Were the problems highlighted by the McNeill-Tulloch Report fully addressed by the Palmerston Reforms?
The Palmerston Reforms satisfied the issues addressed by the McNeill-Tulloch Report as it created new departments within the War Office such as the Army Medical Department, Army Clothing Department and Land Transport Corps to ensure that the needs of the soldiers were met. Therefore, the Army could control its own supply with the abolition of the Commissariat, ensuring that food, clothing and weaponry could easily be distributed to the location of the conflict.
Explain the reasons for the contemporary perception that further reforms to the British Army were not required
The government implemented the Palmerston Reforms and therefore argued, as a result, that little changes could be made alongside carrying out the changes illustrated in the Reforms. Additionally, the Conservative government that held onto power for a decade until 1868, when William Gladstone became Prime Minister when the Liberal Party entered power …
Explain the wider context (war and politics) of the Cardwell Reforms
Britain were growing increasingly alarmed by the rise of Prussia when they began defeating powerful nations such as the Austrian Empire in 1866 after seven weeks of fighting, and the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War from 1870 to 1871. This led the government thinking forward to the prospect of being invaded by Prussia and the need to make changes to the Army if they hoped to prosper over the new nation of Germany, created in 1871 with the unification of the German states, the most powerful being Prussia. Additionally, the politics in Britain played a part in the Cardwell Reforms being implemented as William Gladstone became Prime Minister for the Liberal Party after a decade of Conservative domination in Parliament, meaning more reforms became possible due to the nature of the leading party.
Detail the key specifics of the Cardwell Reforms
Cardwell was able to negotiate the banning of flogging in 1868 during peacetime in the Army due to the argument that during conflict, strong discipline was essential, and abolished branding altogether in 1871 due to its medieval and barbaric nature. Bounty money for new recruits was also banned to prevent recruiting sergeants from tricking young men they fuelled with ale in pubs to join the Army, as Cardwell believed that soldiers that saw the appeal of a career in the military would be a greater asset to the country. He additionally passed the Army Enlistment (Short Service) Act of 1870 which reduced the length of service time overseas from 12 years to 6, meaning soldiers could serve the remaining half of their service in a ‘home country’ with their families.
Assess the relative importance of the Cardwell Reforms, especially in terms of long-term impact on the British Army
The Cardwell Reforms introduced a surge of middle class recruits into the Army due to the greater appeal of the military as a career, significantly altering the class structure that had been present for centuries. Even more working class men joined due to the incentives offered by the modernised institution, and as a result, the beginnings of the Territorial Army (TA) were established due to the Army Enlistment (Short Service) Act. The eventual scrapping of the purchase of commissions in 1872 greatly revolutionised the nature of the army as men had to elevate through the ranks based on merit and experience.
Explain the wider context (war and politics) of the Haldane Reforms
The Haldane Reforms were part of the extensive reforms in areas such as welfare and matters of the Empire by the Liberal governments of Campbell-Bannerman and Lord Asquith, the likes of which Britain has never seen since. Additionally, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany was in the process of increasing the country’s army and navy to rival that of the British, which they had enjoyed since 1805 and the consolidation of British naval supremacy in the Battle of Trafalgar.
Detail the key specifics of the Haldane Reforms
Haldane envisaged a two-line army consisting of an expeditionary force of 3 army corps, known as the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of 250,000 men and a Territorial Army (TA) created from volunteers mostly, which became necessary by Christmas 1914 when most of the TA were sent to the Western Front. The BEF were designed to be mobile, meaning that they could be used as a strike force anywhere in the world at any given time. Haldane also created the Officer Training Corps (OTC) which were responsible for creating the officers of the future and was a remarkable bit of foresight from Haldane with the First World War looming at this time. He also made changes to the higher command of the British Army and introduced new rifles such as the short magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE).
Assess the relative importance of the Haldane Reforms
