Breadth 1: Organising the Military (Army)

Question 1

What is a regiment?

Answer 1

A military unit consisting of two battalions, often linked to a geographical area.

Question 2

What was the Commissariat?

Answer 2

Department responsible for military transportation and supply. It was poorly equipped for war, meaning supply chains broke down and soldiers did not always get what they needed.

Question 3

What was the Army traditionally made up of?

Answer 3

Volunteers. Conscription was only introduced in the latter half of WW1.

Question 4

How were ships organised in the Royal Navy?

Answer 4

Ships organised into flotillas, which are then organised into fleets.

Question 5

What were the problems with the regimental system?

Answer 5

Difficult to attract new recruits. Men were hesitant because of the possibility of being stationed in the tropics. Victorian sensibilities also deterred the Army from hiring criminals.

Question 6

Was the regimental system a meritocracy?

Answer 6

No. Upper class men often bought their rank and lower class men could not progress through skill. This practice was challenged in continental wars, like the Crimean War.

Question 7

What were the uniforms like in the French Wars?

Answer 7

Poor. British soldiers often looked sloppily dressed. The red dye of the uniform faded into a grey-brown. Many soldiers prized the boots and backpacks of French casualties.

Question 8

How did handheld artillery develop?

Answer 8

1815 - Men used “Brown Bess” muskets, firing in a line.
Muzzle-loading muskets were replaced by rifles, which became breech-loading (loaded in the back rather than the front.)
By WW1, there were a range of small weapons like small mortars and stationary machine guns.

Question 9

Why did demand for bullets increase throughout the 19th century?

Answer 9

Fire rate improved, meaning more bullets were needed. Machine guns were also notorious for rapid fire. Because of increased demand and more complex, explosive shells, armies could no longer make bullets on the go.

Question 10

How did food get supplied to troops during the French Wars?

Answer 10

It came from Britain, through the Navy, or was purchased locally by the Quartermaster’s staff. The British refused to live off the land, choosing to stay on good terms with the locals.

Question 11

Why was the expansion of the British Empire problematic for supplying the Army?

Answer 11

Troops were needed in many different places around the globe, meaning that supply lines became stretched.

Question 12

When were the two parts of the McNeill-Tulloch Report filed?

Answer 12

Part 1 - June 1855 (focused on condition of the soldiers.)
Part 2 - January 1856 (focused on supply chain with medical updates.)

Question 13

What were the main findings of the McNeill-Tulloch Report?

Answer 13

• Majority of casualties in the Crimean War stemmed from disease rather than combat.
• Lack of fresh food, especially vegetables.
• Not everyone was receiving their fully daily ration of food.
• Ordinary soldiers attended to their duties despite poor health.
• Soldiers were forced to cook in their mess tins and struggled to keep fires going due to lack of wood.
• Lack of feed for horses.
• Lack of medical supplies.
• Poor communication between the supply officer and Army command.

Question 14

What was the incident involving lime juice in the McNeill-Tulloch Report?

Answer 14

Lime juice is important for preventing scurvy. Lime juice arrived at Balaklava in December 1854, but was not distributed to troops until February 1855.

Question 15

What were some suggestions outlined in the McNeill-Tulloch Report?

Answer 15

They suggested an improvement in organisation and supply procedures. Supplies were plentiful, but were not being distributed to troops on the front line.
They also suggested a nutritional diet for soldiers and to replace the rum ration with porter (a dark beer said to “build you up.”)

Question 16

What changes to the Army were influenced by the McNeill-Tulloch Report?

Answer 16

In 1858, a royal warrant was issued for a reform of the Commissariat. The Army itself had to take responsibility for supplies, rather than relying on civilian sources.

Question 17

What was the main consequence of the McNeill-Tulloch Report?

Answer 17

The control of the Army shifted. The government began to play a more central role in organising the Army because of its failings, rather than the monarch or the generals.

Question 18

When were the Cardwell Reforms?

Answer 18

1868-74

Question 19

Why had the Army gone largely unchanged since 1815?

Answer 19

The generals didn’t want to change. They believed that since their Army had defeated Napoleon, it was still the best in the world. The Duke of Wellington also had a great amount of influence as he had ventured into politics.

Question 20

Why was economic prosperity in the 1850s and 1860s problematic for Army recruitment?

Answer 20

Young men wanted factory work, which paid more and had better conditions compared to the 12 years of service and punishments that occurred in the Army.

Question 21

What problem did Cardwell have with the promotion system?

Answer 21

Soldiers were not promoted by skill, but rather by buying titles/roles. The cheapest rank cost £450, whilst an average farm worker earned only £30 a year. Whilst great leaders had purchased rank like Napoleon and Wellington, it could also be argued that Lord Raglan and Lord Lucan were examples of why purchasing rank should be abolished.

Question 22

When was the Army Enlistment Act and what did it do?

Answer 22

1870 - rather than serve 12 years in the military, men would serve 6 years in the regulars and 6 years in the reserves. When the 12 year period ended, men were free to negotiate longer terms. 21 years of service carried a pension.

Question 23

When was the Regulation of the Forces Act and what did it do?

Answer 23

1871 - ended general service (a man could no longer be sent anywhere if he joined the Army.) Linked regiments closer to areas.

Question 24

What punishments were abolished under the Cardwell Reforms?

Answer 24

1868 - Flogging in Peacetime
1871 - Branding

Question 25

What were some changes to the organisation of the Army under the Cardwell Reforms?

Answer 25

Bounty Money was abolished, so recruiters would be less inclined to trick men into joining the Army.

The purchasing of Commissions was abolished so wealthy men couldn’t buy ranks.

Self-governing dominions were put in charge of their own defences, thus releasing British troops. (26,000 men returned.)

Question 26

How much did Cardwell secure for new troops?

Answer 26

£2 million for another 20,000 troops. This was mostly due to fear of Prussian military successes on the continent.

Question 27

What were the strengths/successes of the Cardwell Reforms?

Answer 27

• Purchasing commissions was never reintroduced and the framework for meritocracy remained.
• Joining the Army became more attractive, although this may have also been due to rising unemployment rates.
• Altered the legal state of the Army

Question 28

What were the weaknesses of the Cardwell Reforms?

Answer 28

• The culture was unchanged. Upper class men were still in positions of power. Generals still believed in the army of the French Wars and earlier.
• Soldiers’ pay was still low. Three quarters of their pay went to supplies (‘stoppages.’)
• Bounty money was eventually reintroduced, but it was paid to the soldier rather than the recruiter.

Question 29

What were some problems with the Army that were obvious in the Second Boer War?

Answer 29

Supply networks were inefficient, equipment sub-standard and soldiers were in poor physical condition. Britain only won due to their higher numbers and Kitchener’s scorched earth policy.

Question 30

When were the Haldane Reforms instituted?

Answer 30

Between 1905 and 1912

Question 31

What was the Expeditionary Force?

Answer 31

A professional group of soldiers who would be used for deployment overseas.

Question 32

What was created through the Territorial and Reserve Forces act in 1907?

Answer 32

The yeomanry and militia were essentially merged into the Territorial Force to defend Britain domestically. The Army was still an unattractive prospect for men, however.

Question 33

What was the Officer Training Corps?

Answer 33

Cadet groups were based in schools and universities to teach boys and men the skills to become an army officer. Haldane combined these groups under the Officer Training Corps mantle, now organised by the War Office.

Question 34

What did the Imperial General Staff do?

Answer 34

Co-ordinated the troops of the British Empire whilst retaining the domestic rights of developed colonies (I.e. Canada, South Africa.)