Brains Consciousness and The Thinking Machine Course Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Who invented the difference engine?

Answer

A

Charles Babbage

Question 2

Q

Who wrote “The Difference” Engine?

Answer

A

William Gibson and Bruce Sterling

Question 3

Q

What does psychoanalysis mean?

Answer

A

psy·cho·a·nal·y·sis ˌsīkōəˈnaləsəs/ noun a system of psychological theory and therapy that aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association.

Question 4

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When was the 30 Years war?

Question 5

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What Philosopher faught in the 30 years war?

Answer

A

Rene Descartes

Question 6

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What is the goal of Philosophy of Mind?

Answer

A

Unified Theory or explaination of Mind

Question 7

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Who were the two sides fighting in the 30 years war?

Answer

A

(1618 - 1648) Initially it was a war between Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmenting Holy Roman Empire. Also, The Hapsburgs and The French.

Question 8

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When was the term psychoanalysis coined?

Question 9

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What is the name of William James first Book?

Answer

A

The Principles of Psychology - Two Volumes

still reads as half Psychology and half Philosophy

Question 10

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Who is This Person and what is their importance?

Who is this person and what is their contribution to Brain Consciousness field?

Answer

A

William James. Father of Psychology

Question 11

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Who is William James?

Answer

A

Taught Philosophy at Harvard but developed on aspect of Philosophy enough that it could be called a science of its own. Psychology.

Question 12

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What is the Relationship Between Philosophy and The Sciences?

Answer

A

Originally no distinction

Eventually group of knowledge became distinguished enough/established to peal off on their own.

Mathematics (Pythagoriens never drew distinctions between)

Astronomy (100 - 150AD)

Physics (after Newton but Newton thought he was a natural Philosopher)

Philosophy of Man to Anthropology

Social Philosophy

Philosophy of Mind

What does Philosophy mean? Love of Wisdom

Question 13

Q

What is the name of Descartes Robot Daughter?

Question 14

Q

Who is This Person and what is their importance?

Who is this person and what is their contributions to the field of Brain Consciousness?

Answer

A

Marvin Minsky

He is a pioneer of artificial intelligence and asked the question “Aren’t you just a meat machine?” Are you a meat machine that thinks creatively and feels. What is so special about the meat?

Question 15

Q

What happened on the ship during Descartes trip to Sweden?

Answer

A

Descartes said he was traveling with his daughter but no one had seen her. When a crew member entered his room to look for her he found a robot atomoton.

Question 16

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Who is this person?

Answer

A

Queen Christina of Sweden

Question 17

Q

Who did Queen Christina of Sweden summon as a tutor for herself?

Answer

A

Rene Descartes

Question 18

Q

Who is Marvin Minsky and what is his contribution to the field of Brain Consciousness?

Answer

A

He is a pioneer of artificial intelligence and asked the question “Aren’t you just a meat machine?” Are you a meat machine that thinks creatively and feels. What is so special about the meat?

Question 19

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Who is This Person and what is their importance?

Answer

A

Charles Babbage

Question 20

Q

What does Cartesian Dualism Say about Stuff?

Answer

A

It says that physical stuff is supremely objective and mental stuff is supremely objective.

Question 21

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What is Cartesian Dualism?

Answer

A

There are two basic kinds of things in the universe. The physical stuff (mass, energy and the motion of atoms in the void) and the mental stuff (the taste of pinapple or feel of ice).

Question 22

Q

What is the name of Descartes book that tries to create a unity of philosophical thinking that is as solid as mathamatics?

Answer

A

Meditations

How do I know I am not dreaming?

Question 23

Q

What do Cartesian Coordinates allow you to calculate?

Answer

A

The spaciality of a line into a simple equation.

Question 24

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What major piece of conceptual unification, that is crutial to our modern knowledge is Rene Descartes directly responsible for?

Answer

A

Analytical Geometry - our ability to treat matters of two dimentional space in terms of algabraic formula - Cartesian Coordinantes

Question 25

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What were the two books in Rene’s dreams?

Answer

A

A Dictionary (broken fragments of the wisdom of the past) and a book called “The Corpus Poetera” which he saw as a union of all Science.

Question 26

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Who is this person and what is their contribution to Brains and Consciousness?

Answer

A

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - If two things are identical, if they are the same things, what is true of one must be true of the other.

If we find two things and something is true of one of the things but not of the other then they can be the same things

Question 27

Q

What is dualism?

Answer

A

dualism definition. In philosophy and theology, any system that explains phenomena by two opposing principles. Many philosophers hold to a dualism of mind and matter, or mind and body. For many theologians, the two principles are those of good and evil.

Question 28

Q

What are 5 Philosophical facts?

Answer

A

You have a mind and you also have a body 2. Mind and body work together 3. Bodily behaviour is publicly observable 4. What you do with you mind is not publicly observable 5. The mental realm has privileged access

Question 29

Q

What was Descartes method?

Answer

A

The method of doubting everything

Question 30

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What analogy is used to illustrate the relationship between minds and brains?

Answer

A

The analogy of your hand and fist. Your hand and fist are not the same thing but they can also not be seen as separate from each other.

Question 31

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What is a major arguement against dualism?

Answer

A

If two things are different how can one thing cause the other? How can a thought cause something physical to happen? Because Dualism separates the mental and the physical rhelms so much it makes their interaction impossible.

Question 32

Q

What is the second step in Descartes Method?

Answer

A

Is there anything that I cannot doubt? Yes that I am doubting. If I were to doubt that I was doubting I would still be doubting.

Is there anything that I cannot be deceived about? Yes that I am thinking. If something were to deceive me about thinking I would still be thinking.

If I am doubting, I must exist. If I am thinking I must exist. If I doubt I must have a mind. If I think, I must have a mind. Therefore, I cannot doubt that I have a mind.

Question 33

Q

What does dualistic philosophy of the universe??

Answer

A

Mental or subjective and physical or objective divisions of the universe

Question 34

Q

Who is this person and what is their contribution to Brains and Consiousness?

Answer

A

Antoine Arnauld is contemporary critic of Descartes.

Question 35

Q

Who is this man and what was his major discovery?

Answer

A

The Phi Phenomenon

Nelson Goodman

Question 36

Q

What is substance dualism also called?

Answer

A

Cartesian Dualism

Question 37

Q

What is the definition of dualism?

Answer

A

du·al·ism ˈd(y)o͞oəˌlizəm/ noun the division of something conceptually into two opposed or contrasted aspects, or the state of being so divided. “a dualism between man and nature” PHILOSOPHY a theory or system of thought that regards a domain of reality in terms of two independent principles, especially mind and matter ( Cartesian dualism ). noun: Cartesian dualism

Question 38

Q

Can you doubt that you are doubting?

Answer

A

No. You would still be doubting.

Question 39

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What is the Cogito?

Answer

A

I think therefore I am. I think therefore I exist.

Question 40

Q

Who’s theory is called “ Indicenability of Identicals”?

Answer

A

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Question 41

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What is the meaning of this image?

Answer

A

Combines Nelson Goodman and his discovery The Phi Phenomenon

Question 42

Q

What happened to Phineas Gage and what is the significance of that?

Answer

A

Iron Rod blasted through his skull while working on the railroad. He had no speech or memory issues but he was a radically different person.

Question 43

Q

What part of the brain did the rob travel through in Phineas’s head?

Answer

A

Frontal Lobe

Question 44

Q

When did the Phineas Gage Incident occur?

Answer

A

September 1884

Question 45

Q

Who is this person?

Answer

A

John W Hinckley

Question 46

Q

What is the Insanity Defence Reform Act and why did it come into exhistence?

Answer

A

It is the result of public outcry over John W Hickley’s not guilt by reason of mental insanity in the assasination attempt of Ronald Reagan.

Question 47

Q

Who is this person and what is their contribution to Brains and Consciousness?

Answer

A

Franz Joseph Gall and his was the founder or inventor of the Pseudo-Science Phrenology

Question 48

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Who is John W Hinckley and why is he important?

Answer

A

He tried to kill Ronald Reagan to impress Jody Foster because he was obsessed with her after watching Taxi Driver.

Question 49

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What were Plato’s thoughts on the soul?

Answer

A

Plato’s Soul is a soul that is build of different parts that are located in different parts of the body.

Question 50

Q

What was Phrenology and what was its purpose?

Answer

A

It was a pseudo-science of measuring and analyzing the skull and its bumps etc to see what kind of person you were or how developed certain parts of your brain were.

Question 51

Q

How long after the accident did Phineus Gauge survive and at what age did he die?

Answer

A

13 years and 38 years old

Question 52

Q

Who is this person?

Answer

A

Phineas Gage

Question 53

Q

Again what are the 5 Philosophical facts?

Answer

A

You have a mind & You have a body
These work together
Your body is physical so what it does is publically observable
Your mind is essentially private
Access to your mind is essentially privaledged

Question 54

Q

What is meant when philosophers refer to phenomenal Consciousness?

Answer

A

The inner rhelm of personal experience. The inner theatre or the body’s reaction to the senses.

Question 55

Q

What happens when you see?

Answer

A

There is something in the world which reflects or refracts light
That light enters your eyes, inpinges on your retina and an image is sent to your brain

This is the Inner Theatre theory of the mind

Question 56

Q

According to the Inner Theatre perspective, what happens when you imagine something?

Answer

A

Instead of light creating the image from the outside world onto the screen you are internally projecting the image on the screen.

Question 57

Q

What does the Inner Theatre theory say about dreaming?

Answer

A

It is like random images being played on the screen

Question 58

Q

Who is Daniel Dennett and what are his theories of mind?

Question 59

Q

What is the cutaneous rabbit experiment and what is its significance?

Answer

A

Is a clear and repeatable experiment in which….

Evenly timed series of taps on the wrist
Immediately followed by a series of taps halfway up your arm
Final series of taps on your elbow
- Instead of feeling like 3 seperate sets of taps it will feel like a small animal hopping up your arm
significance: if signals were occuring 1,2,3 then you would not feel them as if they were moving but because the feeling is continuous hoping it means that your brain is filling in the blanks ahead of perception for you, this means that there is another step involved and the Inner Theatre is not quite true
- the fill in the blank feelings do not occur if there is no second set of taps
- something else is creating the story

Question 60

Q

What is the auditory rabbit experiment and what is its significance?

Answer

A

Developed by David Shore at McMaster

Subject is centrally spaced between two speakers
Clicks in the left speaker
Clicks in the right speaker
Clicks that appear to be running from left to right and all the way in between
- which is actually just step 2 followed by step 3

Question 61

Q

Why do the cutaneous and auditory rabbit experiments offer a problem for the Inner Theatre of Consciousness Theory?

Answer

A

As per theory, sensory data coming in as ABC should be observed as ABC but when going from left to right speak or up your arm there are spaces in between that are filled in. If data came in as ABC and processed as ABC how would the mind know that there was going to be a left speaker sound or future up arm taps.

Question 62

Q

What is the Phi Phenomenon?

Answer

A

The Phi Phenomenon is motion pictures. The change of still pictures into motion by the timing of their presentation to your perception. It offers the same problem for the Inner Theatre theory as the cutaneous rabbit experiment.

Question 63

Q

Why does it appear as though hub caps are moving backwards?

Answer

A

Because hub caps have radial symetry it sometimes happens that the smallest movement in frames that our brain can perceive is one forwards. Similar to a movie our brain sees images in frames and because the next like frame is one that is one step backwards it appears as though that is what is happening.

Question 64

Q

What is the The Phi Phenomenon?

Answer

A

The phi phenomenon is the optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession.

Answer 61

A

Your brain is ready before you are ever conscious of it.

Answer 62

A

Watching hub caps on another moving vehicle and them appearing to move backwards.

Answer 63

A

He asked Phi researchers what would happen if you changed the colour of the dots in the simple Phi Phenom experiment

Answer 64

A

If the Inner Theatre Theory were true then it should work the same for all senses but where do you feel taste or hear sound?

Answer 65

A

The watcher of the Inner Theatre or “The Little Man”

Answer 66

A

Hamunculous

Answer 67

A

Hamonculus

Answer 68

A

Benjamin Libet

Answer 69

A

The interesting thing is that a descision has been made already before you are even aware of it.

Answer 70

A

Proposed the Theory Of Conscious Mental Field

Answer 71

A

Bereitschaftspotential

Answer 72

A

Nelson Goodman

Answer 73

A

He asked Phi researchers what would happen if you changed the colour of the dots in the simple Phi Phenom experiment

Answer 74

A

Daniel Dennett

Answer 75

A

Epiphenomenalism holds that physical events do not cause mental events mental events float above the phyisical events.

Answer 76

A

Thomas Huxley and he is a supporter of Epiphenomenalism

Answer 77

A

It is taking Materialism to its extreme and saying that even thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and sensations can be ultimately reduced to a physical phenomenon.

Answer 78

A

Nicolas Du Malebranche

Answer 79

A

That the concept of belief and sensations are similar to witches. They don’t exist. We are just using the best description of what we don’t understand to label them. As science progresses, we will leave their myth behind.

Answer 80

A

Holds that physical events do not cause mental events or visa versa. GOD makes both happen and produces and illusion of interaction.

Answer 81

A

GOD sets up the Universe from the begining with a pre-established harmony between the physical and the mental from that point on the two operate in harmon. Like two wound up clocks. Leibniz is a classic proponent of Parallelism.

Answer 82

A

Solipsism is the thought that only one’s mind can be truely shown to exist

Answer 83

A

It is the idea that the universe is strictly mental activity.

idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealismmanifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.

Answer 84

A

Is the philosophy that things are only made of one kind of “Stuff” and there are several kinds of Monism.

Answer 85

A

Materialism is the philosophy that the universe is purely physical.

Answer 86

A

Thomas Huxley

Answer 87

A

Behaviourism

Answer 88

A

Functionalist Theory of Mind

Answer 89

A

That anything that can be computed by a computer can be encoded into 1’s and 0’s.

Answer 90

A

Functionalism

Answer 91

A

It thrives on agrument and counter argument. It grows out of conceptual controversy.

Answer 92

A

Behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson’s classic paper “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” (1913).

Behaviorism can perhaps be best summed up by the following quote from the famous psychologist John B. Watson. Watson is often considered the “father” of behaviorism:

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”
–John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930

What exactly did Watson mean?

Simply put, strict behaviorists believed that all behaviors were the result of conditioning. Any person, regardless of his or her background, could be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning.

Answer 93

A

Ledwig Wittgenstien

The private language argument is of central importance to debates about the nature of language. One compelling theory about language is that language maps words to ideas, concepts or representations in each person’s mind. On this account, the concepts in my head are distinct from the concepts in your head. But I can match my concepts to a word in our common language, and then speak the word. You then match the word to a concept in your mind. So our concepts in effect form a private language which we translate into our common language and so share. This account is found for example in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and more recently in Jerry Fodor’s language of thought theory.

Wittgenstein shows, in his later work, that this account of private language is inconsistent. If the idea of a private language is inconsistent, then a logical conclusion would be that all language serves a social function. This would have profound implications for other areas of philosophical and psychological study. For example, if one cannot have a private language, it might not make any sense to talk of private experiences or of private mental states.

Answer 94

A

Dualism

a. If Dualism were right my believing, loving, imagining, and seeing would be private and inaccejssible to anyone else
b. But that very claim was expressed using words believing, loving, imagining, and seeing
c. Words are learned by correcting incorrect uses and praising correct use. We had to have learned these words in this manner.
d. But if Dualism were right these things would be inner and private. If so we could never have learned these words.
c. We did learn these words so Dualism is false

Answer 95

A

A Turing machine is an abstract “machine”[1] that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape according to a table of rules; to be more exact, it is a mathematical model that defines such a device.[2] Despite the model’s simplicity, given any computer algorithm, a Turing machine can be constructed that is capable of simulating that algorithm’s logic

Answer 96

A

A computer is Turing complete if it can solve any problem that a Turingmachine can, given an appropriate algorithm and the necessary time and memory. This terminology can be also applied to a programming language, to demonstrate that it can fully exploit the capabilities of aTuring complete computer.

Answer 97

A

Functionalism

Answer 98

A

If mental terms have publically observable criteria then we should be able to list them but not exhaustive list for any mental term can be produced

Answer 99

A

Is the thought that talk of mental states is really a way of talking about behaviour. Analytical Behaviourism is then the view that mental concepts are definable in behavioural terms.

Answer 100

A

If each person used gibberish to describe what their beetle was like to the other person. The words would never acquire meaning. If Dualism were right then the same would be true of mental terms also. Because mental terms do have meaning then Dualism must be wrong.

Answer 101

A

The Turing Machine

Answer 102

A

That you can only understand a mind in terms of the world of which its a part.

Answer 103

A

James J Gibson and his contribution was that you can only understand the mind by understanding the environment it was built in. He developed his theories training pilots and his focus was on perception.

Answer 104

A

What is perceived is not sense data of any kind. What any organism is going to see if what is important to it in its environment. What is perceived is called affordances or what it can use them for. The mean is observed before the colour or the form of objects or scenes.

“Eye did not evole… “

Answer 105

A

It is anti sense data.

Answer 106

A

Does Gibson’s Theory give us the full story of perception?
Is it true that affordances are all we ever see?

A1. Simple fact is that we are sometimes fooled by our perception. Affordances are defined by their ability to afford you some action. Therefore the theory will leave something out.

A2. Then this cant be true. Even if we add apparently to the equation it leave the theory open to there needing to be a definition of real affordances and not real affordances.

Answer 107

A

The left right reversal lenses experiment.

Answer 108

A

George M Stratton

Answer 109

A

George M Stratton

The Reverse Glasses Experiment

Answer 110

A

Stage 1 - Disorientation - marked by the individual thinking that everything is simply reversed but in actuality the effect is significantly more bewildering

Stage 2 - Clarity but with distinct reversal of left and right, pooring a glass of water you will miss the glass, you see your left hand on the right, tea kettle clearly on the left but the sound is clearly on the right

Stage 3 - (most effectively shows the mind in the world) The world has righted itself (after a few days of wearing glasses). Things on the left are on the left. Things on the right are on the right. You can ride a byicle as well as you ever could.

Conclusion: Perception is keyed to the world so necessarily adapts to it. The mind is a mind geared to action in the world and the brains placticity adapts perception to fit action in the world. The new environment of the mirror images is like Alice Through the Looking Glass. The mind has to change to adapt to its environment so it does.

Interesting Aspects of this experiment are

the mind may adapt to reversing lenses at different rates, you may be able to ride a bicycle down the street but the writting in the shop windows still looks reversed
when you take off the glasses you mind must go through the same three stages to right itself

What is the perplexity of these results?

What happens in that third stage
- you visual experience has just flipped
- or your brain just gets used to it, your brain has just become accustom to the new format of information delivery

Which account is right? Is that the question or are their really two different accounts at all?

In this third stage, is this a change of sensation or a change of cognition?

Answer 111

A

If you remove the eye piece of a microscope and look through it you will see the image inverted. Exactly like seeing a photograph upsidedown. Similar to a photograph which was printed on the wrong side of the negative.

Answer 112

A

Extended cognition is the view that mental processes and mind extend beyond the body to include aspects of the environment in which an organism is embedded and the organism’s interaction with that environment.[1] Cognition goes beyond the manipulation of symbols to include the emergence of order and structure evolving from active engagement with the world.[2] As described by Mark Rowlands, mental processes are:[3]

Embodied involving more than the brain, including a more general involvement of bodily structures and processes.

Embedded functioning only in a related external environment.

Enacted involving not only neural processes, but also things an organism does.

Extended into the organism’s environment.

This contrasts with the view of the mind as a processing center that creates mental representations of reality and uses them to control the body’s behaviour. The field of extended cognition focuses upon the processes involved in this creation, and subsumes these processes as part of consciousness. which is no longer confined to the brain or body, but involves interaction with the environment. At a ‘low’ level, like motor learning and haptic perception,[4] the body is involved in cognition, but there is a ‘high’ level where cultural factors play a role.[5][6] This view of cognition is sometimes referred to as ‘enaction’ to emphasise the role of interplay between the organism and its environment and the feedback processes involved in developing an awareness of, and a reformation of, the environment.[7]

Answer 113

A

active externalism asserts that the environment can play an active role in constituting and driving cognitive processes.

In all versions of externalism (semantic, natural kind, and social) discussed earlier, the mental contents of a subject depend in part on aspects of the environment which are clearly external to the subject’s cognitive processes. For example, the twin-water in Putnam’s thought-experiment or the relevant linguistic community in Burge’s are not part of the subjects’ ongoing mental processes. In contrast, active externalism asserts that the environment can play an active role in constituting and driving cognitive processes. Hutchins (1995) argues that the successful completion of a typical commercial flight requires complex interaction between the pilots and the instruments in the cockpit.

Answer 114

A

They argue that it is arbitrary to say that the mind is contained only within the boundaries of the skull. The separation between the mind, the body, and the environment is seen as an unprincipled distinction. Because external objects play a significant role in aiding cognitive processes, the mind and the environment act as a “coupled system”

The “extended mind” is an idea in the field of philosophy of mind, often called extended cognition, which holds that the reach of the mind need not end at the boundaries of skin and skull. Tools, instrument and other environmental props can under certain conditions also count as proper parts of our minds. Closely related topics often conjoined with the idea of “extended mind” are situated cognition and embodied cognition.

The paper: The Extended Mind by Andy Clark and David Chalmers (1998).[1] is a seminal work in the field of extended cognition. In this paper, Clark and Chalmers present the idea of active externalism (similar to semantic or “content” externalism), in which objects within the environment function as a part of the mind. They argue that it is arbitrary to say that the mind is contained only within the boundaries of the skull. The separation between the mind, the body, and the environment is seen as an unprincipled distinction. Because external objects play a significant role in aiding cognitive processes, the mind and the environment act as a “coupled system”. This coupled system can be seen as a complete cognitive system of its own. In this manner, the mind is extended into the external world. The main criterion that Clark and Chalmers list for classifying the use of external objects during cognitive tasks as a part of an extended cognitive system is that the external objects must function with the same purpose as the internal processes.

In The Extended Mind, a thought experiment is presented to further illustrate the environment’s role in connection to the mind. The fictional characters Otto and Inga are both travelling to a museum simultaneously. Otto has Alzheimer’s Disease, and has written all of his directions down in a notebook to serve the function of his memory. Inga is able to recall the internal directions within her memory. In a traditional sense, Inga can be thought to have had a belief as to the location of the museum before consulting her memory. In the same manner, Otto can be said to have held a belief of the location of the museum before consulting his notebook. The argument is that the only difference existing in these two cases is that Inga’s memory is being internally processed by the brain, while Otto’s memory is being served by the notebook. In other words, Otto’s mind has been extended to include the notebook as the source of his memory. The notebook qualifies as such because it is constantly and immediately accessible to Otto, and it is automatically endorsed by him.

Going further, the authors ask and answer their own question about the role of enculturation:

“And what about socially-extended cognition? Could my mental states be partly constituted by the states of other thinkers? We see no reason why not, in principle.”

They bring up the recurrent theme of the role of language:

“The major burden of the coupling between agents is carried by language…Indeed, it is not implausible that the explosion of intellectual development in recent evolutionary time is due as much to this linguistically-enabled extension of cognition as to any independent development in our inner cognitive resources.”

Answer 115

A

Situated cognition is a theory that posits that knowing is inseparable from doing[1] by arguing that all knowledge is situated in activity bound to social, cultural and physical contexts.[2]

Under this assumption, which requires an epistemological shift from empiricism, situativity theorists suggest a model of knowledge and learning that requires thinking on the fly rather than the storage and retrieval of conceptual knowledge. In essence, cognition cannot be separated from the context. Instead knowing exists, in situ, inseparable from context, activity, people, culture, and language. Therefore, learning is seen in terms of an individual’s increasingly effective performance across situations rather than in terms of an accumulation of knowledge, since what is known is co-determined by the agent and the context. This perspective attempts to resolve the subject-object problem and rejects mind-body dualism and person-environment dualism, being conceptually similar tofunctional contextualism, and B.F. Skinner’s behavior analysis.

Answer 116

A

embodied cognition holds that an agent’s cognition is strongly influenced by aspects of an agent’s body beyond the brain itself.[1] In their proposal for an enactive approach to cognition Varela et al. defined “embodied”:[2]

“By using the term embodied we mean to highlight two points: first that cognition depends upon the kinds of experience that come from having a body with various sensorimotor capacities, and second, that these individual sensorimotor capacities are themselves embedded in a more encompassing biological, psychological and cultural context.”

Philosophers, psychologists, cognitive scientists, and artificial intelligence researchers who study embodied cognition and the embodied mind argue that all aspects of cognition are shaped by aspects of the body. The aspects of cognition include high level mental constructs (such as concepts and categories) and human performance on various cognitive tasks (such as reasoning or judgment). The aspects of the body include the motor system, the perceptual system, the body’s interactions with the environment (situatedness) and the ontological assumptions about the world that are built into the body and the brain.

Work on the embodiment of cognition challenges other theories from cognitive science, such as cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism.[1][6] The idea has roots in Kant and 20th century continental philosophers (such as Merleau-Ponty). The modern version depends on insights drawn from recent research in psychology, linguistics, cognitive science, dynamical systems, artificial intelligence, robotics and neurobiology.

Answer 117

A

Two peoples minds regarding the directions to the museum. One with Alzheimers and one without. The both have the directions but ones directions are completely in their head and the other uses a notebook.

Answer 118

A

Rodney Brooks

Mathematitian

Co-Founder of iRobot

Answer 119

A

David Chalmers

Paper on Extended Mind

Answer 120

A

Andy Clark

Paper on Extended Mind

Answer 121

A

The Roomba Vacuum

Answer 122

A

He listens to both sides of an argument, finds an assumption that both sides are making and then deliberately negates that assumption.

Answer 123

A

A standard assumption in robotics is that we should build robots that act like humans. Evolution didn’t start with humans it started with single celled organisms. So we should start with something radically simpler.

Nassau and 100lbs robot to mars and 100 1lb robots. Fast Cheap and Out of Control.