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Brain and Neuropsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the nervous system do?

A

It collects and responds to information in the environment

And controls working of different organs and cells

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2
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system do?

A

It receives messages from the central nervous system and sends messages to it via neurons

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3
Q

What does the somatic nervous system do?

A

It sends information from the brain to muscles and takes in information from sensory organs such as the eyes and skin.

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4
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system do?

A

It governs automatic functions and is home to the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division

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5
Q

What does the parasympathetic division do?

A

It returns the body to a normal ‘rest and digest’ state

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6
Q

What does the sympathetic division do?

A

Works in opposition to the parasympathetic division

It endures a state of physiological arousal ready for the fight or flight response

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7
Q

What does the central nervous system consist of?

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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8
Q

What does the brain do in the cns?

A

It is divided into two hemispheres, the right controls the left side of the body and vice verse
It is the centre of conscious awareness and where all decision making takes place
The brain stem governs some automatic functions and reflex responses

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9
Q

What does the spinal cord do in the central nervous system?

A

It carries incoming and outgoing messages between the brain and the rest of the body

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10
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Keeping the body in a constant and balanced internal state

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11
Q

Explain brain detects threat as an element of the fight or flight response

A

The first thing to happen
The hypothalamus identifies a threatening event
Triggers the sympathetic division of the ANS to act

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12
Q

Explain release of adrenaline as an element of the fight or flight response

A

The ANS changes from resting state to an aroused state

The stress hormone adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands into the bloodstream

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13
Q

Explain fight or flight response as en element of the fight or flight response

A

Immediate and automatic
Adrenaline targets the cardiovascular system, increasing heart rate and breathing
Inhibits digestion and increases saliva production
Prepares the body to confront the threat (fight) or provide the energy to run away (flight)

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14
Q

Explain ‘once the threat has passed’ as an element of the fight or flight response

A

Parasympathetic division returns body to normal ‘rest and digest’ state
Digestion and hunger stimulated

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15
Q

Outline the James-Lange theory of emotion

A

Physiological arousal comes first and then the brain interprets the physiological activity which causes emotions. If no physiological changes occur then emotions are not experienced

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16
Q

What is a strength of the James-Lange theory?

A

Real life examples
A fear of public situations can develop as a result of the anxiety created from falling down in public
This shows emotional responses are a result of physiological arousal like increased heart rate

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17
Q

What are two weaknesses of the James-Lange theory of emotion?

A

Is challenged by the Cannon-Bard theory that says we experience some emotions at the same time as physiological arousal
Is challenged by the two factor theory that says we need arousal plus social cues to correctly label the emotion we are feeling (Schachter and Singer)

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18
Q

What are neurons?

A

Nerve cells that send electrical and chemical signals to communicate
There are 100 billion in the human body

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19
Q

What are the three types of neuron?

A

Sensory
Relay
Motor

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20
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

They carry messages from the PNS to the CNS, they have long dendrites and short axons

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21
Q

What are relay neurons?

A

They connect sensory neurons to motor neurons, they have short dendrites and short axons

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22
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

They carry messages from the CNS to muscles and glands, they have short dendrites and long axons.

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23
Q

What are the four main elements of a neuron?

A

Cell body
Axon
Myelin sheath
Terminal button

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24
Q

What is the purpose of the cell body?

A

Nucleus contains genetic material

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25
Q

What is the purpose of the Axon?

A

It carries signals from the cell body down the neuron, covered in the myelin sheath

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26
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

A fatty layer which acts as insulation and gaps speed up the signal

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27
Q

What is the terminal button?

A

The end of the axon forming part of the synapse

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28
Q

How do neurons communicate with each other?

A

Through the release of neurotransmitters from the prsynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron across the space between the two neurons

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29
Q

Explain the release of neurotransmitters

A

They are stored in vesicles at terminal buttons of presynaptic neuron
Electrical signal releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

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30
Q

Explain the reuptake of neurotransmitters

A

They attach themselves to the next neuron at post synaptic receptor sites
The chemical message is turned back to an electrical impulsive
The neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are broken down by enzymes and reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron

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31
Q

What is excitation?

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the post synaptic neuron’s positive charge and make it more likely to fire

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32
Q

What is inhibition (neurons)?

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitters increase the postsynaptic neuron’s negative change and make it less likely to fire

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33
Q

What is summation?

A

It occurs if there are more excitatory signals than inhibitory signals from the thousands of signals received from other neurons

34
Q

Explain ‘the brain is plastic’

A

Synaptic connections in the brain become stronger the more they are used
The brain has the ability to change and develop

35
Q

Explain ‘the Brain adapts’ (Hebb)

A

The brain changed structure and connections in response to new experiences
Any learning at any age will do this

36
Q

Explain ‘learning produces and engram’

A

Learning leaves a trace (engram)

This can be made permanent if we practise and rehearse what we are learning

37
Q

What are cell assemblies?

A

Groups of neurons that fire together

The more they fire, the more the synaptic connections grow and strengthen

38
Q

What is neuronal growth?

A

It occurs as the cel, assemblies retire to manage new learning

39
Q

What are two strengths of Hebb’s theory?

A

It is scientific as he explained learning in terms of brain function which provides and objective basis
It can be applied to education as he found that rats raised in stimulating settings were better able to find their way through mazes as adults

40
Q

What is a weakness of Hebb’s theory?

A

It reduces learning to a neuronal level which means that other levels of understanding are ignored, such as Piaget’s theory about how accommodation moves learning forwards

41
Q

Summarise the frontal lobe

A

Front of the brain
Controls thinking, planning and movement
Contains one language area (broca’s area)

42
Q

Summarise the parietal lobe

A

Back of the brain

Controls vision

43
Q

Summarise the temporal lobe and auditory/language area

A

Behind the frontal lobe and below occipital lobe
Auditory area related to speech and hearing
Includes part of the language area (Wernicke’s area)
Contain the amygdala which processes information

44
Q

What does the cerebellum do?

A

Receives information from the spinal cord and the brain. Main role is movement, coordination and balance . Also involved in attention and language

45
Q

What does localisation mean?

A

Specific brain areas do particular jobs

46
Q

What does damage to the motor area in the left hemisphere affect?

A

The right side of the body

It can lead to the person struggling with find and complex movements

47
Q

Describe the somatosensory area

A

The most sensitive parts take up most ‘space’

Damage means less ability to feel pain and temperature

48
Q

Describe the visual area of the brain

A

Right visual field of each eye sends information to the visual area in the left hemisphere, and vice verse.
Damage to the visual area in the left hemisphere may cause blindness in the right visual field of both eyes

49
Q

What can damage to the auditory area result in?

A

Deafness

50
Q

Where are the areas controlling language?

A

Left hemisphere only

51
Q

What does Broca’s area do?

A

Controls speech production

52
Q

What does damage to Broca’s area result in?

A

Broca’s aphasia, which is a difficulty remembering and forming words

53
Q

What does Wernicke’s area do?

A

Understands language

54
Q

What does damage to Wernicke’s area result in?

A

Wernicke’s aphasia which means they may have difficulty understanding language and are unable to produce meaningful speech

55
Q

What is the aim of Penfield’s study?

A

To investigate patients’ responses when their brain was electrically stimulated

56
Q

What was the method of Penfield’s study?

A

He operated on people to treat their epilepsy.
His technique meant that a conscious patient’s brain was exposed and areas could be electrically stimulated
Patients could the. Report their thoughts and sensations

57
Q

What were the results of Penfield’s study?

A

With temporal lobe stimulation, patients recalled experiences or recalled feelings associated with the experiences, including experiences of dékà vu.
The same memory was recalled each time the same area was stimulated.

58
Q

What were the conclusions of Penfield’s study?

A

Suggests that memories of previous experiences are stored in the temporal lobe.
As associated area stores the personal meaning of the experience
Penfield called this the interpretive cortex

59
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes

60
Q

What is a strength of Penfield’s study?

A

He used a very precise method of studying the brain. He could stimulate the exact same area of the brain repeatedly and patients could report their experiences

61
Q

What are two weaknesses of Penfield’s study

A

His later research did not always support his original findings . Only 40 of the 520 patients he studied reported vivid memories when their lobe was stimulated
The participants in the study made up an unusual sample. The patients were suffering from severe epilepsy

62
Q

What does cognitive neuropsychology aim to do?

A

Create a deatailed map of localised functions in the brain,

63
Q

What is cognition?

A

Mental processes of the mind - like memory and perception

64
Q

What effects do low serotonin have?

A

Affects thinking and behaviour

65
Q

Describe stroke in terms of the brain

A

The brain is deprived of oxygen because of distribution to its blood supply, the specific areas affected will die
The effects may not be permanent if other parts of the brain take over localised functions

66
Q

Summarise a CT scan

A

Large doughnut-shaped rotates around the person to take lots of X-rays of the brain
Images are taken from different angles and are combined to build up a detailed picture

67
Q

What are two strengths of CT scans?

A

Useful for revealing abnormal structures like tumours

Quality of the images provided is higher than traditional X-rays

68
Q

What are two weakness of CT scans?

A

Requires more radiation than X-rays

Only produces still images

69
Q

Summarise PET scans

A

Patient is injected with a radioactive substance like glucose
Brain activity shown On a computer screen

70
Q

What are two strengths of PET scans?

A

Shows brain in action

Shows localisation of function when person asked to person a specific task

71
Q

What are three weaknesses of PET scans?

A

Expensive
Images difficult to interpret
Ethical issues due to the injection of radioactive substance

72
Q

Summarise fMRI scans

A

Measure changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain

Brain activity displayed as 3D images produced on a computer screen

73
Q

What are three strengths of fMRI scans?

A

Shown brain in action
Clear images
No radiation

74
Q

What are three weaknesses of fMRI scans?

A

Expensive
Person must stay very still
Time lag between activity and image appearing

75
Q

What is the aim of Tulving’s gold memory study?

A

To investigate whether episodic memories produced different blood flow from semantic memories

76
Q

What was the method of Tulving’s gold memory study?

A

Six participants were injected with radioactive gold.
Repeated measures design
4 episodic trials - thought of personal experience
4 semantic trials - thought of fact
Blood flow in the brain was monitored on a PET scan

77
Q

What were the results of Tulving’s gold study?

A

Different blood flow patterns found in three out of six participants
Semantic memories created a greater concentration of blood flow in the posterior cortex
Episodic memories created greater flow in the frontal lobe

78
Q

What were the conclusions of Tulving’s gold study?

A

Episodic and semantic memories are localised in different parts of the brain
Memory has a biological basis

79
Q

What is a strength of Tulving’s gold memory study?

A

It produced scientific evidence from brain scans that is difficult to fake which made the evidence more unbiased

80
Q

What are two weaknesses of Tulving’s gold memory study?

A

The sample was restricted - only six participants were used and differences were only seen in half.
Episodic and semantic memories are often very similar as memories for personal events also contain facts and knowledge so it is difficult to work out which type of memory is being studied

Psychology (8 decks)

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