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Psychology GCSE > Brain and Neuropsychology > Flashcards

Brain and Neuropsychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the Nervous System?

A

Collects and responds to information in the environment.

Controls working of different organs and cells including the brain.

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2
Q

What are the Subdivisions of the Nervous System?

A

Central Nervous System (CNS) + Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
CNS = brain and spinal cord
PNS = Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) + Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
ANS = sympathetic and parasympathetic

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3
Q

What is the function of the Central Nervous System? (CNS)

A

The brain is divided into two halves (hemispheres).
Right hemisphere controls the left side of body and vice versa.
The brain is the centre of conscious awareness and where all decision-making takes place.
The brain stem governs some automatic functions (e.g. heart beat) and reflex responses.

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4
Q

What is the function of the Peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A

Receives messages from the CNS and sends messages to it.

Messages sent via neurons.

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5
Q

What is the function of the Autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A 
Governs automatic (involuntary) functions.
For example, breathing, heart rate, digestion and the body’s response to stress
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6
Q

What is the Somatic nervous system (SNS)?

A

Sends information from the brain to muscles, voluntary control of our muscles plus reflex responses.
Takes in information from sensory organs, such as the eyes and the skin.

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7
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A

Keeping the body in a constant and balanced internal state.
For example:

Levels of carbon dioxide in the blood controlled through regular breathing.

Body temperature maintained at 37 degrees centigrade by monitoring activity of the body’s organs.

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8
Q

What is an ‘automatic’ system?

A

We don’t have to consciously direct the ANS.

Breathing, our heart beating, etc., is vital to life so it needs to be involuntary.

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9
Q

What is the Sympathetic nervous system?

A

Works in opposition to the parasympathetic nervous system.

A state of physiological arousal (e.g. heart beats faster) ready for the fight or flight response.

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10
Q

What is the Parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The parasympathetic nervous system produces the opposite effect to the sympathetic nervous system.

The rest and digest response which returns the body to normal resting state once the threat has gone.

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11
Q

What happens when the brain detects threat?

A

The hypothalamus identifies a threatening event (a stressor).

Triggers the sympathetic division of the ANS to act.

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12
Q

What happens when adrenaline is released in the fight or flight response?

A

The ANS changes from resting state (parasympathetic) to an aroused (sympathetic) state.

The stress hormone adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands into the bloodstream.

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13
Q

Briefly describe the fight or flight response?

A

The response is Immediate and automatic.

Adrenaline targets the cardiovascular system, increasing heart rate and breathing.

Also inhibits digestion and increases saliva production.

Prepares the body to confront the threat (fight) or provide energy to run away (flight).

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14
Q

What happens to the body in the flight or flight situation when the threat has passed?

A

Parasympathetic division returns body to normal ‘rest and digest’ state.

Digestion and hunger stimulated

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15
Q

Briefly describe the James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A

Physiological arousal comes first and emotion after.

Two similar theories were proposed and combined.

An event causes physiological arousal in the following way:

Hypothalamus arouses the sympathetic division of the ANS.

Adrenaline is released and creates physiological arousal (heart rate increased, etc., i.e. fight or flight response)

Brain interprets the physiological activity.
Causes emotions, e.g. fear, excitement, love.

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16
Q

A real life example of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A

Meeting a bear in a forest activates the sympathetic division.

Muscles tense, heart pounds.

Physiological changes interpreted as fear.

Person runs away.

If no physiological changes occur then emotions are not experienced.

For example, if you stood in front of your class and your heart rate didn’t increase, then you do not feel scared because there were no physiological changes.

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17
Q

One strength of James-Lange Theory of Emotion is that there is evidence that emotions do come after arousal . . .

A

A strength of the theory is real-life examples.

A fear of public situations (phobia) can develop as a result of the anxiety (emotion) created from falling down in public.

This shows that emotional responses such as fear are a result of physiological arousal like increased heart rate.

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18
Q

However, the Canon-Baird Theory challenged the James-Lange Theory of Emotion . . .

A

A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the Cannon–Bard theory.

We experience some emotions (e.g. embarrassment) at the same time as physiological arousal and not one after the other.

Therefore this theory can explain emotional situations that the James–Lange theory cannot.

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19
Q

One limitation of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion is that it is too simplistic . . .

A

A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the two-factor theory.

We need arousal plus social cues to correctly label the emotion we are feeling (Schachter and Singer).

Therefore the James–Lange theory does not explain how a person ‘decides’ what emotion they are experiencing.

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20
Q

What are neurons?

A

Nerve cells send electrical and chemical signals to communicate.

There are 100 billion of them in the human body, with 80% ‘living’ in the brain.

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21
Q

Describe 3 different types of neuron?

A

Sensory neurons: Carry messages from PNS to CNS. Long dendrites, Short axons (LS).

Relay neurons: Connect sensory neurons to motor neurons. Short dendrites, Short axons (SS).

Motor neurons: Carry messages from CNS to muscles and glands. Short dendrites, Long axons (SL).

(Think of a way to remember S = LS, R = SS, M = SL)

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22
Q

Describe the structure of neurons

A

Cell body: nucleus containing genetic material (DNA).

Axon: Carries signals from the cell body down the neuron, covered in myelin sheath.

Myelin sheath: Fatty layer acts as insulation and gaps (nodes of Ranvier) speed up signal.

Terminal button: end of axon forming part of the synapse

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23
Q

Describe a neuron’s electrical transmission

A

Resting state: Inside has a negative charge compared to outside.

When it fires: Changes to a positive charge which causes an action potential.

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24
Q

What is the function of a synapse?

A

Neurons communicate with each other through the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron across the space between two neurons (the synaptic cleft).

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25
Q

What happens when neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft?

A

Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles at terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron.

Electrical signal releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft attach themselves to the next neuron at postsynaptic receptor sites.

The chemical message is turned back to an electrical impulse

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26
Q

What does ‘Reuptake of neurotransmitter’ mean?

A

The neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are broken down by enzymes and reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron

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27
Q

What do Excitation and Inhibition mean?

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the postsynaptic neuron’s positive charge and make it more likely to fire.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters increase the postsynaptic neuron’s negative charge and make it less likely to fire.

28
Q

What is the definition of Summation?

A

Summation occurs if there are more excitatory signals than inhibitory signals from the thousands of signals received from other neurons.

This causes the neuron to fire creating an electrical impulse

29
Q

A summary of Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth

A

The brain is plastic: Synaptic connections in the brain become stronger the more they are used.
The brain has the ability to change and develop.

The brain adapts: The brain changes structure and connections in response to new experiences (= learning). Any learning – at any age – will do this.

Learning leaves a trace (engram).
This can be made permanent if we practise and rehearse what we are learning.

Cell assemblies are groups of neurons that fire together. The more they fire, the more the synaptic connections grow and strengthen.
Neuronal growth occurs as the cell assemblies rewire to manage new learning.

30
Q

One strength of Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth is that the theory is scientific . . .

A

A strength of Hebb’s theory is that it is scientific.

Hebb explained learning in terms of brain function which provided an objective basis for understanding behaviour.

This shows that learning can be studied through brain processes.

31
Q

A strength of Hebb’s theory is it can be applied to education . . .

A

A strength of Hebb’s theory is it can be applied to education.

32
Q

A weakness with Hebb’s theory is that it reduces learning to a neuronal level . . .

A

This means that other levels of understanding are ignored, such as Piaget’s ideas about how accommodation moves learning forwards.

This is an issue as a more complete account of learning would discuss non-biological factors as well.

33
Q

How is the brain divided?

A

The brain is divided into two hemispheres.

The cerebral cortex covers the brain and is divided into four lobes.

34
Q

What are the functions of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A

Frontal lobe, contains motor area: Front of the brain.
Controls thinking, planning and movement.
Contains one language area – Broca’s area.

Parietal lobe, contains somatosensory area: Behind the frontal lobe, with somatosensory area at the front.
Sensations are processed, e.g. touch.

Occipital lobe, contains visual area: Back of the brain.
Controls vision.

Temporal lobe and auditory/ language area: Behind the frontal lobe and below occipital lobe.
Auditory area related to speech and hearing.
Includes part of the language area – Wernicke’s area

35
Q

What is the function of the Cerebellum?

A

Receives information from the spinal cord and the brain.

Main role is movement, coordination and balance. Also involved in attention and language.

36
Q

What does ‘Localisation of function in the brain mean’?

A

Specific brain areas do particular jobs.

Damage to particular areas of the brain may mean impairment or loss of function

37
Q

What is the function of the motor area of the brain?

A

Controls movement - left hemisphere controls right and visa versa

Damage to the motor area in the left hemisphere affects the right side of the body.

38
Q

What is the function of the somatosensory area of the brain?

A

The most sensitive body parts take up most ‘space’ e.g. sensations for face and hands use over half of the neurons available.
Damage means less ability to feel pain and temperature.

39
Q

What is the function of the visual area of the brain?

A

Right visual field of each eye sends information to the visual area in the left hemisphere, and vice versa.

Damage to the visual area in the left hemisphere may cause blindness in the right visual field of both eyes.

40
Q

What is the function of the auditory area of the brain?

A

Responsible for hearing

Damage can lead to deafness.

41
Q

What is the function of the language area of the brain?

A

Areas controlling language are in the left hemisphere only.

Damage to Broca’s area leads to difficulty remembering and forming words.

Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to difficulty understanding and producing language.

42
Q

Describe Penfield’s study onto the interpretive cortex

A

Aim: To investigate patients’ responses when their brain was electrically stimulated.

Method: Penfield operated on people to treat their severe epilepsy. His technique meant that a conscious patient’s brain was exposed and areas could be electrically stimulated. Patients could then report their thoughts and sensations.

Results: With temporal lobe stimulation, patients recalled experiences or recalled feelings associated with the experiences, including experiences of déjà vu. The same memory was recalled each time the same area was stimulated

Conclusion: Suggests that memories of previous experiences are stored in the temporal lobe.
An associated area stores the personal meaning of the experience. Penfield called this the interpretive cortex.

43
Q

A strength is that Penfield’s study is that he used a very precise method of studying the brain . . .

A

He could stimulate the exact same area of the brain repeatedly and patients could report their experiences.

This enabled him to produce an accurate ‘map’ of brain function.

44
Q

A weakness of Penfield’s study is that the participants in the study made up an unusual sample . . .

A

The patients were suffering from severe epilepsy.

This could mean that any results obtained were unusual and not reflective of people with non-epileptic brains

45
Q

A weakness is that Penfield’s later research did not always support his original findings . . .

A

In fact only 40 of the 520 patients he studied reported vivid memories when their temporal lobe was stimulated.

This suggests that the interpretive cortex does not always respond in the same way.

46
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.

Aims to create a detailed map of localised functions in the brain

47
Q

How does the structure and function of the brain relate to behaviour?

A

Frontal lobe includes the motor area which controls and coordinates movement.

Temporal lobe includes the amygdala which processes emotion and has been linked to aggression.

48
Q

How does structure and function of the brain relate to cognition?

A

‘Cognition’ refers to the mental processes of the mind – like memory and perception.

Different types of long-term memories are located in different areas of the brain.

49
Q

What is the link between Cognitive neuroscience and mental illness?

A

Low serotonin affects thinking (e.g. suicidal thoughts) and behaviour (low mood, depression).

50
Q

What is the importance of localisation?

A

The effect of any damage depends on the area of the brain affected because functions are localised

51
Q

What are the effects of a stroke?

A

When the brain is deprived of oxygen because of disruption to its blood supply, the specific areas affected will die.

The effects may not be permanent if other parts of the brain take over localised functions.

52
Q

What are the effects of neurological damage on motor ability?

A

Damage to the motor area can lead to the person struggling with fine and complex movements.

Damage to the left hemisphere affects the right side of the body, and vice versa.

53
Q

What are the effects of neurological damage on behaviour?

A

Brain damage can lead to ‘aphasia’ – an inability to understand and use language.

Broca’s aphasia leads to problems producing speech.
Wernicke’s aphasia affects understanding of speech

54
Q

What are CT scans?

A

Large doughnut-shaped scanner rotates around the person to take lots of X-rays of the brain.

Images are taken from different angles and are combined to build up a detailed picture.

55
Q

What are the strengths of CT scans?

A

Useful for revealing abnormal structures like tumours.

Quality of the images provided is higher than traditional X-rays

56
Q

What are the weaknesses of CT scans?

A

Requires more radiation than X-rays.

Only produces still images.

57
Q

What is a PET scan?

A

Patient is injected with a radioactive substance like glucose.

Brain activity shown on a computer screen

58
Q

What are the strengths of a PET scan?

A

Shows brain in action.

Shows localisation of function when person asked to perform a specific task.

59
Q

What are the weakness of a PET scan?

A

Expensive.

Images difficult to interpret.

Ethical issues due to the injection of radioactive substance.

60
Q

What is a fMRI scan?

A

Measure changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain.

Brain activity displayed as 3D images produced on a computer screen.

61
Q

What are the strengths of a fMRI scan?

A

Shows brain in action.

Clear images.

No radiation.

62
Q

What are the weakness of a fMRI scan?

A

Expensive.

Person must stay very still.

Time lag between activity and image appearing

63
Q

Summarise Tulving’s ‘gold memory’ study

A

Aim: To investigate whether episodic memories produced different blood flow from semantic memories.

Method: Six participants were injected with radioactive gold.

Repeated measures design, each participants did:

Four episodic trials – thought of personal experiences.

Four semantic trials – thought of facts.
Blood flow in the brain was monitored on a PET scan.

Results: Different blood flow patterns found in three out of six participants.
Semantic memories created a greater concentration of blood flow in the posterior cortex.
Episodic memories created greater flow in the frontal lobe.

Conclusion: Episodic and semantic memories are localised in different parts of the brain.
Memory has a biological basis.

64
Q

A strength of Tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study is that the study produced scientific evidence . . .

A

It used evidence from brain scans that is difficult to fake, unlike other psychological investigations where you can be less sure that participants are behaving genuinely.

This means that Tulving produced unbiased evidence.

65
Q

A weakness of Tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study is that the sample was restricted . . .

A

Only six participants including Tulving were used and differences in blood flow for episodic and semantic memories were seen in only three participants.
This means the results were inconclusive.

66
Q

A weakness of Tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study is that episodic and semantic memories are often very similar . . .

A

Memories for personal events also contain facts and knowledge about the world so it is difficult to work out which type of memory is being studied.

This may explain why the evidence from Tulving’s study was inconclusive.

Psychology GCSE (8 decks)

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