Book1 Flashcards
perceptual organization
depth, form, motion, constancy
Binocular cues
Two eyes allow them to recieve visual cues from the environment.
binocular cues
depth, retinal disparity, covergence
retinal disparity
eyes are 2.5 inches apart
convergence
Gives humans a sense of depth based on how much the eyeball has turned
monocular cues
See things with one eye
Relative size
closer object appear bigger
Interposition (overlap)
Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in front is closer.
relative height
things higher in our field of vision look further away
shading and contours
using light and shadows to percieve form depth/contours-crater/moutain
motion parallax
relative motion, things farther move slower, things closer move faster
constancy
perception of object doesnt change despite image on retina changing, we are smarter, size/shape/color constancy
size constancy
if object is closer we dont perceive it as bigger just because its close, we know its the same size
shape constancy
a changing shape still maintains the same shape perception.
Color constancy
the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting
sensory adaptation
Ability of our senses to adapt and change their sensitivity stimuli
Weber’s law
JND= just noticeable difference
Linear relationship of jnd
Linear relationship between threshold and background intensity
Weber’s Law (math)
ΔI (JND)/I (initial intensity) = k (constant)
absolute threshold of sensation
differences based on the individual
Absolute threshold of sensation (graph)
May not hear all of the sounds a 100% of the times.
Absolute threshold is NO T equal to jnd?
Difference threshold- difference between the when the light got brighter
Factors that affect absolute threshold
(1) Expectations- eg. expecting a text
subliminal stimuli
stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation
somatosensation
Receive info on intensity, timing, location
Somatosenation types
(1) Temperature = thermoreception
intensity
how quickly the neurons fire’
timing
Neurons encode 3 ways of timing:-
vestibular system
balance and orientation
inner ear=
semicircular canals (posterior, lateral, anterior)
endolymph
inner ear filled with endolymph to detect motion of the fluid with rotation
otolithic organs=
utricle and saccule,
Otolithic organs function
- detect linear acceleration
Calcium carbonate crystals
When the head moves:
What happens when the balance goes wrong?
(1) Dizziness
Dizziness
Endolymph doesn’t stop spinning the same time as we do, so it continues
Signal Detection Theory
how we make decision under conditions of uncertainty, discern between importnat stimuli and unimportant “noise”
SDT in psychology
ex. if given 2 lists in psych experiment and then person asks which words came from first list, they would be uncertain
SDT example
It’s foggy day & you have to decide when to start driving. How strong does a signal have to be for you to drive? Signal is present or absent (red). or traffic light in the fog and can’t tell
signal detection theory
-Hit, the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present,
type I error
false positive
type II error
false negative
d’
*dick is strong= strength
c’
C= strategy
Types of C’ strategy
(1) Conservative (2) Liberal
Conservative
always say no unless you are 100% sure the signal is present
Liberal
liberal strategy= always say yes
signal detection theory pt 2 graph
noise distribution and signal distribution
bottom-up processing
Stimulus influences –> what we perceive (our
top-down processing
use background knowledge –> influence perception, ex. where’s waldo
Gestalt Principles
tries to explain how we perceive things the way we do
Law of similarity
items similar to one another grouped together by brain.
Law of Pragnanz
reality is organized or reduced to the simplest form possible
law of proximity
objects near each other tend to be grouped together
law of continuity
lines are seen as following the smoothest path
Law of closure
objects grouped together are seen as a whole
Law of Symmetry (Gestalt)
the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a
law of common fate
if half dots move up and half dots move down we perceive the dots as 2 distinct units
law of past experiences
visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience
context effects
context of how stimuli are presented influences how people perceive the stimuli
vision
conjunctiva= thin layer inside eyelid
Trasnmission
Electrical activation of one neuron by another
Processing
Nueral signal –> perception
Transduction
Energy transform from one form to anohter
Light pathways
Light enters –> pupil –> rods/ cones –> bipolar cell –> retinal ganglion cell –> optic nerve –> brain
Cones
Red + Green + Blue
Fovea
center of macular
phototransduction cascade
ROD ON —> ROD OFF
Bipolar cells
Found in the retina
Ganglion cells
Found on retina
Optic nerve
visual signals go from ganglion cells to optic nerve (They are just axons of the ganglion cells)
trichromatic theory of color
3 cones in eye, red, green, blue
opponent process theory
cones perceive 4 colors: red, green, blue, YELLOW
Retina
made of rods + cones
Phototransduction cascade
turn off retina
Light hits rods
light –> neural impulse
rods
Optic disks stacked on top of each other
Retinal
Protien inside rhodopsin
mechanism of vision
rhodopsin in the rods, has a cis-retinal molecule
Transducin
3 different parts - attached to the rhodopsin
What happens when rhodopsin changes shape?
rhodopsin changes shape –> transducin breaks from rhodopsin –> alpha subunit binds to another disk protein called phosphodiesterase (PDE)
PDE
Takes cGMP –> converts to GMP
Na+ channels on rods
Allow Na+ ions to ocme in
Na+ unbound of cGMP
less Na+ enters
What happens to bipolar cells when light enters?
When light hits ROD –> turned off–> on center bipolar cells active –> off center bipolar cells inactive
On center bipolar cells
ON CENTER = TURN ON WITH LIGHT
Rod turne don
ROD on –> on center bipolar inactive –> off center active –> activate off center retinal ganglion cell –> send signal to optic nerve
Photopsin
Rhodopsin in cones
Photoreceptor
Light –> neural impulse
Light hits rhodopsin
trigger phototransduction cascade
Diff b/w rods and cones
(1) More rods
visual field
L field of vision hits the R side of both eyes (so the nasal side of L eye and the temporal side of R eye)
feature detection
color= trichromatic theory
audition (sound)
pressure wave stimuli and hair cell
place theory
perception of sound depends on where each freq produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
hearing mechanism
hair bundle in upper membrane of organ of corti, has kinocilium (stereocilia) connected by tip links which have K+ channels
basilar tuning
varying hair cells in cochlea
primary auditory cortex
in the Temporal lobe
cochlear implants
restores hearing from “nerve deafness”= sensorineural hearing loss
sensory adaptation
change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus
sensory homunculus
different areas of body have signals that go to different parts of the strip
proprioception
spindle receptor/sensor located in muscles
pain/temp
pain= nociception
gate control theory
NAME?
pheromones
chemical signal to indicate an innate response to member of same species or another species
olfaction
sends info to olfactory bulb
mechanism of olfaction
olfactory molecule binds to GPCR receptor on olfactory receptor cell then G protein dissociates causeing binding to ion channel which allows outside ions to come in triggering AP which goes to cribiform plate to glomerulus to mitral cell which then synapses on the brain
labeled-line theory of olfaction
each receptor responds to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain in that way
vibrational theory of olfaction
vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile
steric theory/shape theory of olfaction
odors fit into receptors similar to lock-and-key
anosmia
inability to perceive odor
taste
bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami
labeled lines model of taste
each taste bud receptor has 5 axons which all send each dif taste to different parts of the gustatory cortex and they remain separate in the brain
sweet/umami/bitter
GPCR receptors
sour/salty
ion channels
what if we put salty receptor inside a sweet cell?
still interprets it as a sweet signal because the cell will be depolarized by the salty ion channel opening but then it fires to the sweet glomerulus
consciousness
awareness of self and environment, states range from alertness to sleep
alertness
you’re awake, focus attention
daydreaming
feel more relaxed adn less focused, light-meditation
drowsiness
just before falling asleep, self-induced deep meditation
sleep
not aware of self of world around you
sleep stages
4 main stages
N1
first non-rapid eye movement sleep stage
N2
deeper stage of sleep, harder to awaken
N3
slow wave sleep, very difficult to awaken
REM
rapid eye movement stage
sleep
cycle through the stages 4-5 times per night, each one 90 minutes
circadian rhythm
regular body rhythms acorss 24 hour period
dreaming
when eyes are moving rapidly under eyelids
freud theory of dreams
unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted, little scientific support
evolutionary biology theory of dreams
threat simulation to prepare for real world, problem solving, no purpose
other dream theories
maintain brain flexibility
memory consolidation dream theory
to conolidate memories in deep sleep
activation synthesis hypothesis of dreams
brain gets neural iimpulses in brainstem
sleep deprivation
irritable and worse memory
how much sleep is needed
7-8 hours adults
insomnia
persistent trouble falling or staying asleep
narcolepsy
can’t help themselves from falling asleep
sleep apnea
1/20 people
sleep walking/talking
genetic
induced states of consciousness
hypnosis and medications
hypnotism
relax and focus on breathing, more susceptible to suggestion in this state
dissociation theory of hypnosis
extreme form of divided consciousness
social influence theory of hypnosis
people do and report what’s expected of them, like actors caught in their roles
meditation
training to regulate attention and awareness
psychoactive drugs
alter consciousness and perceptions
depressants
lower body fx and neural activity, dec hr, dec bp
stimulants
enhance CNS, inc bp/hr, inc alertness
hallucinogen/psychedelics
seeing/hearing things
opiates
opiate= natural
cannabis
marijuana, hallucinogen and depressant or stimulant
MDMA
stimulant or hallucinogen
drug classification
baed on legal status and how likely to be abused
homeostasis
how you maintain temp, hr, metabolism
routes of drug entry
oral= slow, GI tract, 30 mins
reward pathway in brain
ventral tegmental area
animal model of reward pathway
if you give non-addicted rat regular food it likes w/ substance that makes it sick, the rat learns to avoid the food
addiction
inc genetic risk
tolerance
get used to drug so need more to achieve same effect
cross tolerance
reducion in efficacy or responsiveness to novel drug due to common CNS target
withdrawal symptoms
when you dont have the drug
drug processes
intoxication and withdrawl
withdrawal stages
acute= few weeks, physical withdrawal, for alcohol seen 2 days after and then gets better
substance-induced disorders
mood/sleep disorders
substance-use disorders
drug causes serious degree of impairment of life functioning
methadone
used to treat heroine addiction because activates opiate receptors but more slowly so dampens the high and reduces the craving
CBT
cognitive behavioral therapy
motivational interviewing
find intrinsic motivation to change, goal oriented therapy, few sessions can be doorway to another treatment
group meeting
AA, 12-step program
relapse
patient slips and goes back to dependence
divided attention
switching attn between 2 tasks rather than doing them simultaneously, when performing 2 tasks which require attn simultaneously
joint attention
focus on object by 2 separate individuals
direct attention
attn focused on single sustainable task
selective attention
selecting one thing at a time (studying vs. TV)
exogenous/external cues
pop in the corner
endogenous/internal cues
requires internal knowledge
cocktail party effect
concentrate on one voice in a crowd
inattentional blindness
aka perceptual blindness
change blindness
fail to notice changes from previous to current state in environment
distal stimuli
events out in world around you
proximal stimuli
patterns of stimuli from objects and events that actually reach your senses
covert orienting
act of brining attnetion to something without body/eye movement
overt orienting
person turns body to maximize sensory impact
neglect syndrome
damage to brain causes loss in capacity of spatial dimension or divided attention
vigilance attention
detect signal of interest, allows for priming
alerting attention
affected by aging, norepinephrine modulates it in locus coerculus
orienting attention
capacity to change focus of attention from one stimulus to another, modulated by acetylcholine from basal forebrain
basal forebrain
striatum, nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, septal nuclei
executive attention
goal-directed behavior
shadowing task
theory of selective attention
broadbent’s early selection theory
info goes into sensory register which stores everything
Deutch and Deutch’s late selection theory
selective filter after perceptual processes
treisman’s attenuation theory
we have an attenuator that weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from the unattended ear
Johnson and Heinz propositin
location of info attenuator was able to be varied by listener depending on demand needed for a particular task
spotlight model of attention
take info from 5 senses but dont pay attention to everything
resource model of attention
limited resources ni attention, inability to multitask
tast similarity
harder to multitask with similar tasks
task difficulty
harder tasks require more focsu
information processing model
brains are similar ot computers
sensory memory
iconic= memory for what you see, lasts .5 seconds
partial report technique
report one part of the whole field in cued recall, 75% of visual display accessible to memory
whole report technique
recall elements from original display in proper spatial location
working memory
short term memory
visuo-spatial sketchpat
visual and spatial info processes
phonological loop
capacity is 2 seconds
central executive
controls phonologic loop
dual coding hypothesis
easier to remember words associated wtih images than either one alone
method of loci
imagine moving through familiar space while memorizing things
operational span testing
perform math then read a word and recall test
long-term memory
explicit= declarative
explicit
facts/events
implicit
previosu experiences help you perform the task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences
priming
implicit memory, exposure to stimulus affects response to another stimulus
autobiographical memory
episodes of individual’s life
encoding
transfer info from temporary storage to long-term memory
rote rehearsal
say same thing over and over again
chunking
group info into meaningful categories
mnemonic devices
imagery
self-referencing
think about how it relates to you personally
spacing
spread out study sessions
retreival
try to remember memory of something you learned before
context
environment you encode in
state-dependent
your state at time of encoding makes a difference
serial position effects
tendency to remember first few items and last few items and those in the middle are worse
schema
mental blueprint containing common aspects of world
false info
inaccurate recollection
misleading info
see car crash video and asked how fast they were going when asked when “hit” or “smashed”
source monitoring
forget where they got the info from
flashbulb memory
emotional memory
long-term potentiation
connections between neurons strentchen, synaptic plasticity
decay
when we dont encode it well or retreive it for a while we can’t recall it
Ebbinghaus
studied decay, forgetting rate is very fast but if you remember it after initial stages it levels out
retroactive interference
new learning impairs old info
proactive interference
something you learned in the past impairs future learning
aging
implicit memory and recognition memory are stable
dementia
decline in memory from damage to brain tissue, stroke
alzheimer’s disease
nrusons die off so cerebral cortex shrinks
Korsakoff’s syndrome
lack of B1 or thiamine
wernicke’s encephalopathy
precursor to korsakoff’s syndrome
retrograde amnesia
can’t recall previously encoded info
anterograde amnesia
can’t encode new memories
hierarchical semantic network
store info at highest category possible
cognitive economy principle
brain is efficient
modified semantic network
network develops based on experience and knowledge
Piaget’s theory of development
1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door
stage 1
0-2 years old
stage 2
2-6/7 years old
stage 3
7-11 years old
stage 4
12+ years old
assimilation
how we describe new info in terms of our current understanding
accomodation
how we later adjust schemas to incorporate new experiences, to remember
well-defines problems
clear starting and end point
ill-defined problems
ambiguous, no ovbious goal, ex how to live a happy life
trial and error
guess til something works
algorithm
logical step by step procedule til you hit the right one
heuristics
mental shortcut, dont guaruntee correct solution but simplify complex problems
means-end analysis
heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems then attack problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state
working backward
start at goal state and figure out how to get to current state
fixation
gettign stuck on wrong approach
insight
aha moment
incubate
insight comes after time
availability heuristic
examples that come to mind
representativeness heuristic
match a prototype
conjunction fallacy
co-occurence of 2 instances is not more likely than 1 individually
overconfidence
fluency (ease of processing) during studying
belief perseverance
ignore disconfirming facts
confirmation bias
actively seek out info that confirms your beliefs
framing effects
saying 2/3 change no one would be saved or 1/3 no one dies
spreading activation
activate one concept activates related concepts
Spearman’s general intelligence
evidence from fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other test types
theory of multiple intelligences- Robert Sternburg
analytical (academic and problem solving)= IQ score (avg 100, sd= 15), high analytical tend to do best in school
emotional intelligence
perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions in interactions
fluid vs. crystallized intelligence
fluid= reason quickly and abstractly, ex. new problem solving, “thinking on your feat”
alfred-binet
first developed an intelligence test on accident
lewis Terman
modified Binet’s test and added teenagers and adults
nature vs. nurture
heritability studies in twins raised separate vs. together and fraternal twins raised together
fixed mindset
intelligence is biologically set and unchanging
growth mindset
intelligence is changeable if you learn more
Galton’s idea of hereditary genius
human ability is hereditary
Binet’s idea of mental age
how children at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average performance for that age
convergent intelligence
Guilford
Spearman theory of intelligence
factor analysis and general intelligence
Thurnstone
7 factors of intelligence
Howard Gardner
7-9 independent intelligences, don’t depend on each other
Robert Sternberg
3 independent intelligences: analytical, creative, practical
one general intelligence
suggested by research
cognitive declines as you age
recall
cognitition that’s stable as you age
implicit memory (riding bike)
cognitive improvement
semantic
language
left hemisphere of brain
broca’s area
frontal lobe
wernicke’s area
temporal
aphasia
communication disorder, prob with language, speaking, listening, reading, writing
broca’s aphasia
non-fluent aphasia
wernicke’s aphasia
fluent aphasia/receptive aphasia
global aphasia
both broca and wernicke are damaged
conduction aphasia
associative aphasia
agraphia
inability to write
anomia
inability to name things
neural plasticity
can retrain brain by strengthening synapses even after damage
sever corpus callosum
have trouble naming objects even if both hemispheres are perfectly functioning
split-brain patient
severing of corpus callosum
contralateral brain organization
left visual field processed by right brain
left brain
logical
right brain
random
right side of brian
action/perception/attention
prosody
R hemisphere
having dif words for color
does that mean you think about color differently?
behaviourists
empiricitst, believe language is just conditioned bx
nativist
rationalist, language must be innate
materialist
look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write
universalism
thought determines langauge completely
Piaget
cognitive development in children
Vygotsky
language and thought are independent, but converge through development
linguistic determinism
language has an influence on thought
Weak linguistic determinism (relativism)
language influences thought, makes it easier for us to think in certain ways based on how language is structured
strong linguistic determinism (sapir-whorfian hypothesis)
language determines thought completely
nativist perspective- Noam Chomsky
children are born with ability to learn language
critical period- Chomsky
sensitive period
learning (behaviorist theory)- BF Skinner
children acquire lang through operant conditioning
interactionist approach- Vygotsky
social interaction approach
9-12 months
babbling
12-18 months
one word per month
18-20 months
explosion of language and combining words
2-3 years
longer sentences (3 words or more)
5 years
langauge rules largely mastered
lexical access
identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning which has been stored in LTM
phonology
phonetic component, “sound system”
morphology
structure of words
semantics
meaning of word
syntax
how words are put together in a sentence
pragmatics
dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
limbic system
emotion
thalamus
sensory relay station
amygdala
aggression center
Kluver-Bucy syndrom
destroyed amygdala
hippocampus
forming new memories
hypothalamus
below thalamus
cerebral cortex and emotions
+ emotions on L side (R handed people are more positive)— more social kids have more activity in L hemisphere and more joyful/happy people
prefrontal cortex
responsible for higher order functions
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
parasympathetic ns
rest and digest
3 components of emotion
physiological= hr inc, muscle tense when surprised
Paul Ekman: 6 universal emotions
happines
universally recognizable emotions
newborns have the same emotions as grown ups
James-Lange theory of emotions
experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological response
Cannon-Bard theory
disagree with James-Lange theory, found flaws in idea that physiological response triggered emotion
Schachter-Singer two factor theory of emotion
physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion
Lazarus theory
experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled)
Yerkes-Dodson law
bell curve
conceptual act model of emotion
suggests that emotions are not biologically hardwired but instead emerge in consciousness in the moment
complex emotions
require person expressing that emotion to understand and be aware of him/herself
core affect
pleasure, tension, energy
dimension approach
emotinos measured in terms of dimensions like arousal (high/low) and valence (+/-)
emotions as discrete systems
theories regarding universal emotions
mood
lasts longer than emotions, global not specific
prototypical emotional episode
multiple co-occuring components
stress
process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threads and challenges
stressor
threatening/challenging event
stress reaction
subsequent physical and emotional response
richard lazarus- appraisal theory of stress
stress arises less from physical events but more from assessment/interpretation of those events
primary appraisal
assessing stress in present situation
secondary appraisal
evaluation of individual’s ability to cope with the situation
significant life change
sig change to personal life
catastrophic event
large scale event that everyone considers threatening
daily hassles
seemingly minor events of daily life
ambient stressors
global stressors integrated into the environment
adrenal glands
adrenal medulla
adrenal medulla
release catecholamines (epi, norepi)
adrenal cortex
release cortisol
oxytocin
peer bonding and moderates stress response
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) by Hans Selye
1) alarm phase= stress rxn kicks in, ready for fight or flight
damaging effects of stress on heart
hypertension
stress and metabolism
secretes cortisold and glucagon which converts glycogen to glucose
stress and reproduction
reproduction gets shut down during stress response
stress and immune fx
causes inflamation, can attack our own body
behavior and stress
hippocampus= learning/memory
learned helplessness
have control ripped out of your hands so learn that you don’t have control so lose ability to identify with coping mechanisms b/c less control of outcome of your life
Friedman and Rosenman anger
testing that stress is associated wtih inc vulnerability to heart disease
anxiety
amygdala
addiction
alcohol/tobacco
stress management
perceived control
coping
conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems and seeking to master/minimize/tolerate stress or conflict
adaptive coping/positive coping
proactive coping
maladaptive coping/negative coping
they reduce symptoms while maintaining and strengthening the disorder
overcompensation- maladaptive
aggression/hostility
surrender-maladaptive
compliance/dependence
avoidance
social withdrawl
low-effort syndrome/coping
coping response of minority groups in attempt to fit into the dominant culture
basic brain fx
motor, sensory, automatic (reflexes)
higher brain fx
cognition, emotions, consciousness
lower motor neurons
efferent in PNS synapse onto skeletal muscles
LMN signs
atrophy, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscles)
mechanoreceptor
NAME?
chemoreceptor
NAME?
themoreceptor
skin, hypothalamus
photoreceptor
eyes (rods/cones)
MCM RP
man crush monday corpuscle
meissner corpuscle skin
papillary dermis
merkel disk
papillary dermis
ruffinis ending
reticular dermis
pacinian corpuscle
hypodermis
hair follicle receptor
hairy skin
positoin/vibration/touch
large diameter axons that are myelinated
muscle stretch reflex
same side afferent and efferent
somatosensory neurons
afferent in muscle spindles form excitatory synapses in spinal cord w another neuron in spinal cord to excite skeletal muscle cells to contract LMN
gray matter
most of the neuron somas
white matter
myelinated axons
upper motor neurons
control LMN
hyperreflexia
inc the muscle stretch reflexes
clonus
rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle
hypertonia
inc tone of skel muscle, red muscle stretch
extensor plantar response
if you take hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor, toes come down on the objectbut with extensor toes extend up
cerebral cortex bumps
inc cellular mass/surface area
frontal lobe
motor cortex= body movements
parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex
occipital lobe
vision
temporal lobe
sound
contralateral control
L brain controls R body
domain hemisphere
language, math
nondominant hemisphere
emotional tone of language, big picture concepts
old brain
all occur outside of our awareness
cerebellum
motor plan
brainstem
connects all parts of brain together including cranial nerves
reticular formation
role in autonomic fx (resp, digestion)
long tracts
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem
pons
reglates walking and relaxing
medulla
regulate autonomic activity of heart and lungs
internal capsule
contains corticospinal tract
corpus callosum
connects R and L hemisphere
basal ganglia
major role in motor fx
thalamus
sensory fx
hypothalamus
controls pituitary gland
glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter
GABA
inhibitory in brain
glycine
inhibitory in spinal cord
acetylcholine
nuclei in frontal lobe release to cerebral cortex
histamine
from hypothalamus sends to cerebral cortex
norepinephrine
in pons called locus coerculus that releases it to cerebral cortex
serotonin
released by lots of nuclei from all over brainstem called raphe nuclei
dopamine
ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra
DA in substantia nigra
for motor planning
DA in VTA
goes to prefrontal cortex via mesocortical pathway
DA in VTA to
to nucleus acumbens, amygdala, hippocampus
amino acid nt
gaba and glycine
peptide neurotrans
opiods
monoamine nt
catecholamines (dopamine, epi, norepi)
other nt
ACh
parkinson’s
low levels of dopamine
schizophrenia
high levels of dopamine
endorphina
block pain sensations
phenologists
each brain area is devoted to certain personality characteristic, thought, emotion— wrong! each brain area associated with specific tasks
Broca’s area
pt had a loss of speech but no other disorder
lesion studies
tissue removal
neurochemical lesions
kainic acid= destroy cell bodies but doesnt influence axons passing by
ways of studying brain
structure vs. function
brain structure tests
CAT and Magnets (MRI) used to make buildings
function tests
EEG can tell you info, MEG rhymes with EEG
CAT
computerized axial tomography
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging
EEG
electroecephalogram
MEG
megnetoencephalogram
fMRI
functional MRI
PET
positron emission tomogrpahy
autocrine
hormone effects the cell that makes it
paracrine
hormone has a regional effect
endocrine s
hormone causes a response that is far away
anterior pituitary gland
FLAT PEG
posterior pituitary
oxytocin and ADH (antidiuretic/vasopressin)
thyroid
regulates body metabolism
parathyroid
4 spots on back of thyroid
adrenal gland
on top of kidney
gonads
ovareis and testes
pancreas
regulates blood sugar
hormones general
go everywhere but only picked up by cells with receptors
negative feedback thyroid
hypothalamus releases TRH
sperm
male genetic material
egg cell
really big, not mobile
fertilization
sperm and egg meet
sperm binding
sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida
acrosome reaction
enzyms leak into zona pellucida and digest it so sperm gets closer to plasma membrane of egg
cortical reaction
enzymes in egg get ejected to zona pellucida that digest it to prevent other sperm from binding
genetic transfer
cortical granules are released adn plasma membranes fuse and nuclear DNA comes in and mitochondrial DNA
embryogenesis
zygote
morula
when it is 32 cells
blastocyst
inner cell mass
epiplasts
cells above hypoblast after forming amniotic cavity
bilamar disk
epiblast and hypoplast
primitive stream forms
where epiblast cells begin to migrate
gastrulation
trilaminar disk
neurulation
core in mesoderm differentiates into notochord
implantation
endometrium lining thickens forming valleys called crypt
endoderm
becomes GI tract, lungs, liver, pancreas (GLLP) (GULP)
mesoderm
forms inner layers of skin, muscles, bones, cardiac muscles, kidneys, bladder, ovaries and testes
ectoderm
nervous system, sweat glands, hair, skin, outer layer of skin (Nerv and outer)
fertilization
week 2
embryogenesis
divided cells and have organ systems formed
week 10
fetal development
40 weeks
full term
preterm
before 37 weeks
