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BRS > Bone & Soft Tissue > Flashcards

Bone & Soft Tissue Flashcards

1
Q

What there components comprise the musculoskeletal system?

A

Bone
Muscle
Connective tissue

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2
Q

Give three examples of connective tissue in the msk system?

A

Tendon
Ligaments
Cartilage

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3
Q

What are tendons?

A

Connects muscle to bone

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4
Q

What are ligaments?

A

Connects bone to bone

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5
Q

What is cartilage?

A

Structure support
Protects tissues
Attachment sites

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6
Q

How is the Skeleton divided into two anatomical regions?

A

Appendicular and axial

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7
Q

What does the appendicular skeleton contain?

A

Pectoral girdle, upper and lower limbs, and pelvic girdle

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8
Q

What anatomical structures does the axial skeleton contain?

A

Cranium, vertebral column, and rib cage

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9
Q

What are the five functions of the skeletal system?

A 
Movement
Support
Protection
Site of calcium storage
Site of haemopoesis
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10
Q

Which cells do osteogenic stem cells derive from?

A

Derive from mesenchymal stem cells

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11
Q

Which cells do osteogenic stems differentiate into?

A

Osteoblasts and chondroblasts

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12
Q

What is the function of osteocytes?

A

Capable of bone deposition and resorption, involved in bone remodelling by transmitting signals to other osteocytes in response to slight bone deformations caused by muscular activity, strengthens bone due to additional stresses.
Mature osteoblasts, that have been enveloped by the bone matrix, osteocytes continue to form bone to an extent (maintains strength of bone matrix).

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13
Q

Where do osteocytes reside within the bone?

A

Reside within the lacuna off the bone

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14
Q

How do osteocytes communicate with other cells?

A

Through surrounding canaliculi

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15
Q

What is a lacuna?

A

Calcified matrix of bone

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16
Q

What are canaliculi

A

Cytoplasmic processes of the osteocyte extend distally from the cell towards other osteocytes.

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17
Q

What is the function of canaliculi?

A

Exchange of waste productions and nutrients exchanged to maintain the viability of the osteocyte.

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18
Q

What is the main function of osteoblasts?

A

Responsible for synthesis and catalyses mineralisation of osteoids during bone formation and remodelling.

Arise from differentiation of osteogenic cells in the periosteum,.

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19
Q

What enzymes are released by osteoblasts?

A

Alkaline phosphatase

Collagenase

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20
Q

Which factors are released by osteoblasts?

A

growth factors
hormones
collagen

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21
Q

Which hormone is released from osteoblasts?

A

Osteocalcin

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22
Q

What types of cells are osteoclasts?

A

Large multinucleate cells responsible for the dissolution and absorption of bone

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23
Q

What function is performed by osteoclasts?

A

Bone resorption, dissolution and absorption of bone ; mediators of one destruction, resorb bone by phagocytosis

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24
Q

Where do osteoclasts reside?

A

Reside within the minor depression indented on the bone surface, referred as Howship lacunae

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25
Q

What is formed by osteoclasts during osteclastogenesis?

A

Ruffled border

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26
Q

What is a ruffled border?

A

Invaginations of the plasma membrane, defines the active region, whereby phosphatase enzymes are secreted to dissolve the organic collagen,

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27
Q

Which organic component of bone is resorbed by osteoclasts?

A

Organic collagen (Type 1)

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28
Q

Which inorganic component of bone is resorbed?

A

Inorganic calcium and phosphate

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29
Q

Which proteins form the sealing zone between the osteoclast and bone?

A

Sialoprotein

Osteopontin

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30
Q

Which inorganic compound is removed bone?

A

Calcium hydroxyapatite are removed from the bone by acidification

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31
Q

Which part of bone is protected against osteoclastic resorption?

A

Osteoid

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32
Q

Where are osteocytes located?

A

Matrix lacunae

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33
Q

Where are osteogenic cells located?

A

Deep layers of periosteum

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34
Q

Where are osteoblasts located?

A

Growing portions of bone, including periosteum and endosperm

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35
Q

What are the three components of ground substance?

A

Proteoglycans
Glycoproteins
Cytokine and growth factors

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36
Q

What are the 2 inorganic components?

A

Calcium hydroxyapatite

Osteocalcium phospahte

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37
Q

What are the two main bone type?

A

Immature woven bone

Mature bone

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38
Q

What are the two types of mature bone?

A

Cancellous bone

Cortical bone

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39
Q

How is mature bone arranged?

A

mineralised woven bone with a lamellar structure

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40
Q

How is cortical bon arranged?

A

Densely arranged osteons (Haversian systems)
Osteon consists of central canal, surrounded by concentric rings (laemallea) of the matrix.
Intermediate of the matrix rings are osteocytes, locate in lacunae. Canaliculi (contains extracellular fluid) radiate from lacunae to the Haversian canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix

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41
Q

What does one osteon contain?

A

Central canal

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42
Q

How are osteons arranged?

A

Concentric rings of matrix,

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43
Q

What are the purposes of canaliucli in cortical bones?

A

Contains extraceluar fluid radiate from the lacunae to the Haversian canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix

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44
Q

What doe osteonic canals?

A

Encapsulates vasculature that are parallel to long axis of the bone

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45
Q

How are osteonic canals linked?

A

Perforating canals with vessels on the surface of bone- Volkmann’s canal

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46
Q

What are cortical bones?

A

Supports body weight, protects organs, provide levers for movement, store and release calcium

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47
Q

What is the structure of cancellous bone?

A

Trabecular

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48
Q

Where does cancellous bone predominant?

A

Predominates epiphysis of bones , and within the medullary canal

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49
Q

What are the distinctive comparisons between cancellous and cortical bone?

A

Higher surface area, less dense, softer, weaker and less stiff

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50
Q

What do the irregular cavities contain within cancellous bone?

A

Red bone marrow

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51
Q

Where is the site of haemopoesis within cancellous bone?

A

Red bone marrow within cancellous bone

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52
Q

How are adjacencies cavities of cancellous bone connected?

A

Canaliculi

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53
Q

How does the structure of trabecular change upon addition stress?

A

Realign in accordance to stress directions, resistant to mechanical stress

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54
Q

What are the functions of cancellous bone?

A

Greater surface area, ideal for metabolic cavity; change of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and bone marrow is site of haemopoiesis.

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55
Q

What two structures divide long bones?

A

Diaphysis

Epiphysis

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56
Q

What is the diaphysis?

A

Tubular shaft that traverses between the proximal and distal ends of the bone.

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57
Q

What is considered in the hollow region within cancellous bone?

A

medulla cavity, encapsulates yellow marrow

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58
Q

What types bone is located diaphysis?

A

Compact dense bone

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59
Q

What is the point whereby the diaphysis meets the epiphysis?

A

Metaphysis

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60
Q

Within the epiphyseal line, which region is responsible for growth?

A

Epiphyseal plates

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61
Q

What type of cartilage is located within the epiphyseal plates?

A

Hyaline cartilage

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62
Q

How does the epiphyseal line form?

A

Hyaline cartilage is replaced by osseous tissue, and the plate becomes the line.

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63
Q

What is the membranous lining of the medially cavity?

A

Endosteum

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64
Q

What is the function of endosteum?

A

Bone growth , repair, and remodelling occurs.

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65
Q

What is outer surface of medulla cavity?

A

Periosteum

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66
Q

What does the periosteum contain?

A

Blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourishes the bones

67
Q

Which type of cartilage cover the epiphyses?

A

Articular cartilage

68
Q

What are the functions and properties of articular cartilage?

A

Covers epiphyses, reduces friction

Shock absorber.

69
Q

What is the mesenchyme?

A

Forms within the cranium to form flat bones of the skull, Clavicle and mandible

70
Q

What is the first step of intramembranous ossification?

A

Mesenchymal cells undergo differentiation and specialising into osteogenic cells, and ultimately osteoblasts

Clusters of osteoblasts form an ossification centre

71
Q

What is the second step of intramembranous ossification?

A

Secrets osteoid, uncalcified matrix consists of collagen precursors and organic proteins which calcifies due to mineralisation, thereby entrapping the osteoblasts.

osteoblasts that are entrapped within the matrix become osteocytes

As osteoblasts transform into osteocytes, osteogenic cell synth surrounding connective tissue differentiate into osteblastex at the ends of the growing bone

72
Q

What is the third stage of intramembranous ossification?

A

Clusters of osteoid unite around capillaries forming a trabecular matrix.

Osteoblasts on the surface of the newly formed bone form become the cellular layer of periosteum

Periosteum secretes compact bone superficial to the cancellous bone.

73
Q

What is stage four of intramembranous ossification?

A

Cancellous bone aggregates near blood vessels, condensing into red bone marrow

74
Q

What is endochondral ossification?

A

Bone develops through hyaline cartilage replacement. Cartilage does not become bone

Cartilage behaves as a template to become completely replaced by new bone
Process is longer than intramembranous ossification

75
Q

How do bones at the base of the skull and long bones form?

A

Endochondral ossification

76
Q

What are chondroblasts?

A

Cartilage cells.

77
Q

What do chondroblasts secrete?

A

Hyaline cartilage precursor for bone

78
Q

What is cartilage?

A

Cartilage is flexible semi-solid matrix produced by chondroblasts, and consists of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin, sulphate, collagen fibres, and water.

79
Q

Is cartilage vascular?

A

Avascular (no vasculature supply nutrients, or removing metabolic wastes).

80
Q

How are nutrients and metabolic wastes transported from cartilage?

A

Functions are performed by diffusion through the matrix from vessels surrounding perichondrium

81
Q

What are 5 stages of endochondral ossification?

A 
Cavitation 
Periosteal bud invasion 
Diaphysis elongation 
Cartilage remains at the epiphyses 
Secondary ossification centre
82
Q

What is cavitation?

A

Formation of matrix increases cartilaginous model size. Blood vessels in perichondrium bring osteoblasts to the edges of the structure, arriving osteoblasts deposit osteoid in concentric formation around the diaphysis.

Bony edges of the developing structure present nutrients from diffusion into the centre of the hyalin cartilage = chondrocyte death

83
Q

how does chondrocyte death occur during endochondral ossification?

A

Bony edges of the developing structure prevent nutrients from diffusing into the centre of the hyaline cartilage.

84
Q

What occurs during periosteal bud invasion?

A

Without cartilage inhibiting blood vessel invasion, blood vessels penetrate the resulting space, enlarging the cavities and transferring osteogenic cells with them- forming osteoblasts.

Enlarging spaces become the medullary cavity. Bone is deposited within the structure creating the primary ossification centre.

85
Q

What is diaphysis elongation?

A

Chondrocytes and cartilage continue to grow at terminal ends of the structure (Epiphyses), increases length, continued growth accompanied by remodelling inside the medullary cavity (osteoclastic activity), and overall lengthening of the diaphysis.

86
Q

What is the secondary ossification centre?

A

Matrix mineralisation, death of chondrocytes, invasion of blood vessels from the periosteum and seeding with osteogenic cells occur in the epiphyseal regions. Hyaline cartilage between the diaphysis and epiphysis known as epiphyseal plate.

87
Q

What is the first stage of endochondral ossification (simplified)?

A

Mesechymal cells –> chondrocytes (cartilage model)

88
Q

Describe the 5 stages of endochondral ossification?

A

Mesenchymal cells –> chondrocytes

2) Blood vessels on surface transfer osteoblasts that deposit a bony collar
3) Capillaries penetrate cartilage and deposit bone inside model –> primary ossification centre
4) Cartilage and chondrocytes grow at epiphysis, medullary cavity expands
5) Secondary ossification centre

89
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A

Area of elongation in a long bone, layer of hyaline cartilage where ossification occurs in immature bones

90
Q

What is epiphyseal side?

A

Hyaline cartilage cells are active, dividing and producing hyaline cartilage matrix

91
Q

What is diaphyseal side?

A

Cartilage calcifies and undergo necrosis replaced by bone

92
Q

What is the reserve zone?

A

Region closest to the epiphyseal end of the plate, containing chondrocytes within the matrix. Chondrocytes do not participate in bone growth , however secure the epiphyseal plate to the overlying osseous tissue of the epiphysis.

93
Q

What is the proliferative zone?

A

Layer towards the diaphysis contains stacks of large chondrocytes. Mitotically dividing cells producing multiple chondrocytes replacing those that die at the diaphysral end of the plate.

94
Q

What is the zone of maturation and hypertrophy?

A

Mature cells situated closer to the diaphyseal side of the plate. Longitudinal growth the bone is a result of cellular division the proliferative zone, and the maturation of cells in the zone of maturation and hypertrophy

95
Q

What is the zone of calcified matrix?

A

Closest to the diaphysis, chondrocytes are dead (Calcification restricts nutrient diffusion). Capillaries and osteoblasts from the diaphysis penetrate this zone, and osteoblasts secrete bone tissue on the remaining calcified cartilage. Connects the epiphyseal plate to the diaphysis.

96
Q

What appositional growth?

A

Appositional growth is the deposition of bone beneath the periosteum to increase diameter.

97
Q

Where does appositional growth occur within the bone?

A

Occurs at the endosperm, osteoclasts resorb old bone that lines the medullary cavity.
Bone formation via osteoblasts with simultaneous bone resorption along the medially cavity, and bone deposition deep to the periosteum increases the diameter of the diaphysis

98
Q

Which cells produce new bone?

A

Osteoblasts

99
Q

What is the 4 stage process of appositions growth?

A

Ridges in the periosteum create groove for periosteal blood vessel

2) Periosteal ridges fuse, forming a endosperm lined tunnel
3) Osteoblasts in nostrum construct new concentric lamellae inward toward centre of new tunnel, new osteons.

4) Bone growth outwards as osteoblasts in periosteum build new circumferential lamellae
Osteon formation repeats as new periosteal ridges fold over blood vessel.

100
Q

What do tendons attach?

A

Attach skeletal muscle to bone

101
Q

What is the composition of tendons?

A

Fibroelastic composition provides strength required to transmit large mechanical forces.
Each muscle has two tendons one proximally and one distally

102
Q

What is the function of tendons?

A

Transmit forces generated from the muscle to the bone to elicit movement
Elastic energy storage/recoil

103
Q

What is the origin of the tendon?

A

Proximal attachment of the tendon

104
Q

What is the insertion point of the tendon?

A

Distal tendon

105
Q

which component of tendons resit compressive stresses?

A

Proteoglycans

106
Q

Which cells comprise tendons?

A

Tendoblasts

Tenocytes

107
Q

What are the shapes of tenocytes?

A

Become elongated, spindle shaped

108
Q

What is the function tenocytes?

A

Responsible for turnover of maintenance of the extracellular matrix.
Respond to mechanical load of the tendon, and thus make adaptations, arranged longitudinally

109
Q

What are connexions?

A

Collection of six connexion protein subunits have a central pore, form of gap junction

110
Q

What is the open state of gap junctions?

A

Allow metabolites and ions to pass freely between the gap junction

111
Q

Which forms of proteins form a tendon?

A

Type 1 collagen

Proteoglycans

112
Q

What is the function of type 1 collagen.

A

Type 1 collagen are responsible for tensile strength of the tendon

113
Q

What is the function of proteoglycan in a tendon?

A

Responsible for viscoelastic nature

114
Q

What is the configuration of collagen?

A

Parallel configuration

115
Q

What is collagen?

A

insoluble fibrous protein that givers strength tendons, ligaments and bone

116
Q

What is the primary structure of collagen?

A

Tripeptide sequence , consisting of 3 repeated amino acids, glycine, proline and lysine, bonded together by peptide bonds/

117
Q

What is the secondary structure of collagen?

A

Hydrogen bonding occurs by the amino and carboxyl groups of the amino acids to form a left handed helix

118
Q

What is the quaternary structure of collagen?

A

3 polypeptide helices (homotrimers) bond together to produce a right handled triple helix, the helical structure is maintained through hydrogen bonding - forms collagen molecule

119
Q

how are multiple triple helices bonded together?

A

Covalent bonding between amino and carboxyl group of the amino acids.
This causes cross linking and strong intermolecular forces to occur

120
Q

Which type of trimer is collagen 1?

A

heterotrimer

121
Q

what is the purpose of ligaments?

A

Connect bone to bone to stabilise joint , connective tissue that supports the internal organs, and hold bones together in proper articular at the joints

122
Q

What composes ligaments?

A

Consist of functional subunits that tighten or loosen depending on joint position
Proprioceptors
Epilligament
Type C fibres

123
Q

Which fibres transmit pain signals?

124
Q

Which cells secrete collagen?

A

Fibrolasts

125
Q

What is a synovial bursa?

A

Synovial membrane, present to secrete lubricating synovium.

126
Q

What is the epiligament?

A

Containing blood vessels and nerves in outer covering

127
Q

What is cartilage?

A

Flexible connective tissue, avascular and not innervated , relying on diffusion to obtain nutrients (slow healing)

128
Q

What is the composition of cartilage?

A

Chondrocytes, ground substance is chondroitin sulphate, and the fibrous sheath is the perichondrium.
Chondrocyte produce collagen extracellular matrix and reside in lacunae

129
Q

What is the function of cartilage?

A

Cartilage behaves a shock absorber to reduce friction
Covers and protects long bones adjoints
Forms structural component of ribs and IV discs

130
Q

What are the 3 main examples of cartilage?

A

Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage

131
Q

What is the hyaline avascular structure surrounded by?

A

Perichondrium

132
Q

Which type of collagen is present in elastic cartilage?

133
Q

Which type of collagen is present in hyaline cartilage?

A

Type II collagen, interacting with proteoglycans

134
Q

What type of collagen is present in fibrocartilage?

A

Type 1 collagen

135
Q

Where does fibrocartilage predominate?

136
Q

Which molecule is associated with elastic cartilage?

137
Q

What are sutures?

A

immovable joints

138
Q

Which term describes an immovable joint?

A

Synarthrosis

139
Q

Which type of joint is the pubic symphysis?

A

Cartilaginous

140
Q

What are primary cartilaginous joints?

A

Synchondrosis, connected hyaline cartilage; epiphyseal plates are temporary cartilaginous joints that enable bone growth.

141
Q

What are secondary cartilaginous joints?

A

Symphysis, connected by fibrocartilage, mainly in the midline of the body

142
Q

What are synovial joints?

A

Articulation is surrounded by an enclosing synovial capsule, bones not directly connected at the joint surfaces.

143
Q

Which type of cartilage is articular?

A

Hyaline cartilage

144
Q

What are synovial joints encapsulated?

A

Articular joint capsule

145
Q

What does the synovial membrane?

A

Synovia to provide lubrication

146
Q

What is the purpose of synovial joints?

A

Friction between then bones at a synovial joint is prevented by the presence of the articular cartilage, a thin layer of hyaline.

147
Q

What is the function of synovia?

A

To provide lubrication to reduce further friction between the bones of the joint.

Fluid nourishes the articular cartilage, avascular

Ability of bone to move smoothly against each other within the join cavity, and the freedom of joint movement

148
Q

What is the term used to describe a movable joint?

A

Diarthrosis

149
Q

What is outer joint capsule?

A

Articular capsule: bones structurally held together

150
Q

What is the inner joint capsule?

A

Contains synovial fluid, reduces friction during movement

151
Q

What are the three types of synovial joints?

A

Uniaxial
Biaxail
Multiaxial

152
Q

What are uniaxial joints?

A

Movement is exclusively in one direction (Hinge joints)

153
Q

What are biaxial joints?

A

Movement in two different plans, saddle joint

154
Q

What are multiracial joints?

A

Movement on several axes, ball and socket joints

155
Q

What is synarthrosis?

A

Minimum non mobility (fibrous joints including sutures)

156
Q

What is amphiarthrosis?

A

Restricted mobility (Pubic symphysis)

157
Q

What is diarthrosis?

A

Dextrously mobile

158
Q

What are 6 types synovial joints?

A 
Hinge
Saddle
Plane
Pivot
Condyloid
Ball and socket
159
Q

What are hinge joints?

A

Permits movement in one plane-flexion and extension (elbow joint)

160
Q

What is a saddle joint?

A

Named due to its resemblance to a saddle; characterised by opposing articular surface with reciprocal concave-convex shape.

161
Q

How are joints stabilised?

A

Ligaments: prevents excessive movement that could damage joint
More ligaments + tighter ligaments –> Greater stability, less mobility

162
Q

What are the risks with poor stability?

A

Contributes to an increased risk of dislocation

163
Q

What effect does excessive ligament laxity have on joints?

A

Leads to hyper mobility and greater risk of injury

164
Q

How is the glenohumeral joint stabilised?

A

Glenoid labrum

Rotator cuff muscles

BRS (38 decks)

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