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Year 1 > Body Logistics > Flashcards

Body Logistics Flashcards

Body Logs innit

1
Q

percentage of male human body that is water

A

60

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2
Q

percentage of female human body that is water

A

55

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3
Q

percentage/ fraction of water content in the body that is intracellular

A

66 (two thirds)

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4
Q

percentage of body fluid that is extracellular

A

33 (one third)

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5
Q

percentage of extracellular water that is interstitial

A

80

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6
Q

percentage of extracellular fluid that is blood

A

20

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7
Q

percentage of blood that is plasma

A

60

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8
Q

percentage of blood that is haemocrit

A

40

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9
Q

what does haemocrit mean?

A

it is the proportion of blood that consists of red blood cells

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10
Q

weight of a normal male

A

70kg

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11
Q

weight of a normal female

A

58kg

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12
Q

volume of water in male body

A

42 litres

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13
Q

litres of extracellular water in the body

A

14

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14
Q

litres of intracellular water in the water

A

28

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15
Q

litres of interstitial fluid

A

11

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16
Q

litres of blood in the normal male human body

A

5

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17
Q

litres of haemocrit in the normal male human body

A

2

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18
Q

litres of plasma in the normal male human body

A

3

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19
Q

homeostasis definition

A

“sameness standing still”

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20
Q

what is pyrexia?

A

fever, when the body reaches a temperature of above 38.5 celsius

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21
Q

normal temperature range of humans

A

37 degrees +/- 0.5

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22
Q

arterial pH

A

7.45

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23
Q

venous pH

A

7.35

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24
Q

normal blood pH

A

7.4

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25
Q

what happens during pyrexia

A

infection, detection of pathogens, hypothalamus increases its temperature set point

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26
Q

why does pyrexia occur during infection

A

immune systems works most optimally at higher temperatures than normal body temperature.

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27
Q

heat stroke temperature

A

above around 46 degrees celsius

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28
Q

heat exhaustion temperature range

A

40-45ish degrees

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29
Q

fever temperature range

A

38.5 to 40 degrees celsius

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30
Q

mild hypothermia temperature range

A

32-35 degrees celsius

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31
Q

severe hypothermia temperature range

A

28 to 32 degrees celsius

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32
Q

at what core body temperature is a human so cold that they stop showing vital signs?

A

below 28 degrees celsius

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33
Q

list off as many heat stroke symptoms as you can

A

seizures/ unconsciousness, confusion, headache, dizziness, dry skin, vomiting and nausea, rapid shallow breathing, muscle cramping

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34
Q

list as many symptoms of heat exhaustion as you can

A

confusion, dizziness, fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, muscle cramping, dry skin (no sweating)

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35
Q

mild hypothermia symptoms

A

shivering, fatigue, slurred speech, confusion and forgetfulness, muscle stiffness, dry skin (no sweating)

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36
Q

severe hypothermia symptoms

A

no shivering, rigid muscles, slow and weak pulse, drowsiness, reduction in response levels

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37
Q

what is acidosis?

A

when blood pH falls below 7.35

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38
Q

what is alkalosis?

A

when blood pH is above 7.45

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39
Q

what two organs maintain acid-base balance, and what types of acid-base balance do they maintain respectively?

A

lungs - respiratory balance

kidneys - metabolic balance

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40
Q

what are the absolute limits of pH at which human tissue can survive?

A

6.8-7.8

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41
Q

total body water percentage in normal adult males

A

60

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42
Q

total body water percentage in normal adult females

A

50

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43
Q

total body water percentage in normal infants

A

70

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44
Q

total body water percentage in lean adult males

A

70

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45
Q

total body water percentage in lean adult females

A

60

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46
Q

total body water percentage in lean infants

A

70

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47
Q

total body water percentage in obese adult males

A

50

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48
Q

total body water percentage in obese adult females

A

42

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49
Q

total body water percentage in obese infants

A

60

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50
Q

hypotonicity

A

when a solution has a lower solute concentration than surrounding solutions

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51
Q

hypertonicity

A

when a solution has a higher solute concentration than surrounding solutions

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52
Q

isotonicity

A

when a solution has the same concentration of solutes to surrounding solutions

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53
Q

what does hypotonicity of surrounding solutions mean for water flow in cells?

A

it means that water moves into the cell (as it has more solute)

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54
Q

what does hypertonicity of surrounding solution mean for water flow in cells?

A

it means that water moves out of the cell (as surroundings have more solute)

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55
Q

what happens when there is too much water in the blood (hypotonic)?

A

water moves into cells via osmosis due to high osmotic pressure causing swelling, enzymes/proteins stop working, then cell bursts

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56
Q

why do patients need IV drips to be isotonic?

A

because it would result in swelling of cells such as erythrocytes

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57
Q

what is osmolarity and what is its clinical unit?

A

concentration of solute in solution per litre - unit is mol/L

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58
Q

what is osmolality?

A

concentration of total amount of solutes per kg of solution - unit is mOsmol/kg

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59
Q

is osmolarity dependent on temperature and pressure?

A

yes

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60
Q

is osmolality dependent on temperature and pressure?

A

no

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61
Q

what happens to a solute that ionises when calculation osmolality?

A

double/triple it as osmolality includes its anion concentration - whether you double or triple it depneds on charge

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62
Q

what is oncotic pressure?

A

the osmotic pressure flowing into the blood vessel as induced by albumin proteins

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63
Q

what is hydrostatic pressure?

A

the pressure causing water to move out of blood vessels

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64
Q

what causes peripheral oedema?

A

oncotic pressure is less than hydrostatic pressure, so water flows into cells - this can be caused by lack of albumin which has either leaked out of the blood vessels, or is just not there

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65
Q

what are the two types of acidosis?

A

metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis

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66
Q

what causes metabolic acidosis

A

buildup of lactic acid in the blood

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67
Q

what causes respiratory acidosis

A

hypoventilation

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68
Q

symptoms of acidosis

A

tremors, coma and feeling tired

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69
Q

what does the body do to combat metabolic alkalosis?

A

respiratory acidosis

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70
Q

what specialised epithelial cells line the stomach and what are their function?

A

goblet cells that produce mucus in order to prevent gastric juices damaging the lining of the organ

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71
Q

what is the liquid that causes such low pH in the stomach called?

A

gastric juice

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72
Q

what organ induces hydrostatic pressure?

A

the heart

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73
Q

what are compounds given to combat heartburn called?

A

antacids

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74
Q

list common antacids used to combat heartburn

A

aluminium hydroxide, calcium salts, and magnesium hydroxide

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75
Q

what is the most preferred antacid to use for heartburn?

A

aluminium hydroxide

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76
Q

why is aluminium hydroxide preferred as an antacid instead of any other antacid?

A

because it is insoluble, so has fewer side effects (think tonicity), it is milder and it is longer lasting

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77
Q

range of values of osmolality of the blood

A

280-295 mOsm/kg

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78
Q

where does the body first get fluid during dehydration?

A

from fluid within the gastrointestinal tract

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79
Q

therapeutic uses of hypothermia

A

slows blood pressure, so it can help treat victims of a cardiac arrest

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80
Q

what is hypoxemia

A

abnormally low levels of oxygen in the blood

81
Q

what can be used after cardiac arrest to prevent swelling in the brain

A

hypothermia therapy

82
Q

why does hypothermia work in treating the body after cardiac arrest?

A

After cardiac arrest, cells are not supplied with oxygen, leading to anaerobic respiration and lactate production - this leads to cell death, macrophage build up (to clear dead cells) and therefore cerebral oedema (brain swelling). Cooling the body slows the immune system and also prevents apoptosis (think enzymes), so further damage is prevented.

83
Q

what is rigor and what causes rigor?

A

rigor refers to the reflex response of episodes of shaking caused by high fever in serious bacterial infection

84
Q

where in the body is rigor triggered

A

anterior hypothalamus

85
Q

what is a febrile seizure

A

A seizure often in children, caused by fever

86
Q

four types of tissue

A

connective, epithelial, muscle, nerve

87
Q

how are epithelial cells held together?

A

anchoring proteins

88
Q

types of connective cells

A

chondrocytes, osteoblasts/clasts/cytes, fibroblasts, stem cells

89
Q

what is ground substance?

A

gelatinous material in the extracellular matrix

90
Q

types of muscle tissue

A

cardiac, smooth, skeletal

91
Q

what is the definition of the limit of resolution

A

the smallest distance at which two objects can be distinguished as separate objects

92
Q

what are disadvantages of electron microscopes in comparison to light microscopes?

A

only monochrome images can be seen, has a limited field of vision, is a lot more difficult and expensive to prepare and view from, and only dead objects can be seen

93
Q

what is the advantage of electron microscopes in comparison to light microscopes?

A

can get way higher magnification (x500,000 in comparison to x600)

94
Q

what is the purpose of fixation and preservation of tissue?

A

to prevent putrefaction

95
Q

how to fix and preserve tissue

A

Embed in 10% formalin (neutral phosphate buffered saline with 40% formaldehyde), wash in alcohol, embed the tissue in melted paraffin wax, allowed to cool, place in a mould and pour even more wax on. Cut a very thin slice and then stain with hematoxylin and eosin

96
Q

percentage of NaCl in IV fluid

A

0.9

97
Q

what does eosin stain in cells?

A

the cytoplasm and intracellular matrix

98
Q

what does hematoxylin stain in cells?

A

the nucleus and nucleolus

99
Q

list the methods of obtaining a biopsy

A

tissue obtained from surgery, scarping methods (curettes and scalpel scrapes), needle biopsy, venepuncture.

100
Q

what is venepuncture?

A

using a needle to withdraw blood directly from a vein

101
Q

how does immunofluorescence work?

A

Tagging a fluorescent marker onto an antibody that attaches to a specific antigen of a specific cell. The area in which this antibody is will light up

102
Q

how does immunohistochemistry work?

A

a secondary antibody is attached to a primary antibody - the secondary antibody also has an enzyme attached to it. When exposing the enzyme to a substrate, a precipitate forms, which exposes the site of the antibody

103
Q

what type of enzyme is usually used for immunohistochemistry?

A

peroxidases

104
Q

what precipitate is given off when peroxidases interact with their substrates (and 3,3 diaminobenzidine)?

A

brown precipitate

105
Q

what is a lyzosome called when it has digested all of its digestible contents, and contains indigestible compounds?

A

a residual body

106
Q

a residual body is?

A

a lyzosome which has digested its content and has indigestible compounds left inside

107
Q

what is peroxide used in the body for?

A

oxidation of substrates (such as alcohol) and kill bacteria

108
Q

where do all cells come from?

A

the epiblast

109
Q

what are the only cells in the body that are separated?

A

ova, spermatozoa and erythrocytes

110
Q

what are the three layers of the embryo during early embryonic development?

A

ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm

111
Q

what layer of the embryo does do epithelial cells come from?

A

all layers of the embryo

112
Q

what layer of the embryo does the mucosal membrane come from?

A

the endoderm

113
Q

where do muscles and connective tissue come from in the embryo layers?

A

the mesoderm

114
Q

where do nerves cells originally come from within the embryo layers

A

the ectoderm

115
Q

list ways in which cells within tissue are held together

A

cell to cell adhesion molecules, extracellular fibres, internal-external scaffolding, pressure from each cell (pushing power basically)

116
Q

what is a mesenchymal stem cell?

A

it is a cell that differentiates into connective tissue

117
Q

list as many of the junctions that are included in adherence systems in epithelial cells as possible

A

tight junctions, gap junctions, integrins, hemi-desmosomes, desmosomes, adhesion belt, proteoglycans, focal adhesions, integrins

118
Q

where are tight junctions located relative to the an epithelial cell?

A

near to the apical membrane

119
Q

what is the role of tight junctions?

A

to prevent larger molecules from the lumen entering deeper tissue layers

120
Q

what fibres and proteins are adhesion junctions made from?

A

intracellular actin proteins that are connected to E-cadherin proteins that are intercellular to conncect cell to cell.

121
Q

which cell are adhesion junctions found in?

A

epithelial cells (inc. endothelial)

122
Q

what is meant by the adhesion belt of cells?

A

where multiple adhesion junctions gather (this card is a bit bullshit so don’t worry if it doesn’t make sense, i’m kind of tired)

123
Q

what cell to cell adhesion is the strongest?

A

desmosome junctions

124
Q

what proteins and fibres are used by desmosomes?

A

cytokeratin fibres and E-cadherin proteins

125
Q

are desmosomes lateral junctions or basal junctions?

A

lateral mate.

126
Q

what type of proteins is used for gap junction adhesions?

A

connexin proteins

127
Q

what are gap junction adhesions used for?

A

to communicate between cells and transfer small molecules between cells.

128
Q

what type of muscle cells are gap junctions found in?

A

smooth and cardiac

129
Q

hemi-desmosome function

A

to anchor the cell to the basal lamina and prevent adherence of cells onto other/external surfaces (i.e epithelial cells of epidermis onto other surfaces like a table with glue on it)

130
Q

which fibres and proteins do hemi-desmosomes use to adhere to the basal lamina?

A

cytokeratin fibres and integrin proteins.

131
Q

do hemi-desmosomes attach laterally or to the basal lamina?

A

basal lamina

132
Q

which proteins and fibres do focal adhesions use to attach to the basal lamina?

A

actin filament fibres and integrin proteins

133
Q

which fibres do focal adhesions bind to?

A

fibronectin

134
Q

where are laminin and fibronectin found

A

basal lamina

135
Q

how do epithelial cells connect to muscle fibres?

A

through connective tissue

136
Q

list the mucus membrane layers (from inside to out)

A

mucosa (consisting of the three layers - epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa), submucosa, muscularis externa and then the serosa

137
Q

which layer within the mucus membrane are the lymphatic vessels found?

A

lamina propria

138
Q

three functions of the GI tract

A

absorb nutrients, prevent pathogens from entering, and expel waste.

139
Q

what type of epithelial cells line the corpuscle lining of the nephron in the kidney?

A

simple squamous

140
Q

what type of epithelial cells line the collecting ducts of the kidneys?

A

simple cuboidal

141
Q

what would be the reason that the corpuscle lining of the kidney would have squamous cells?

A

because ultrafiltration happens very fast, and diffusion rate is directly proportional to diffusion distance

142
Q

where within the urinary tract does the muscle layer start to appear?

A

ureter and bladder

143
Q

give an example where a transitional epithelium is seen within the body

A

in the bladder’s epithelium

144
Q

what else is the transitional epithelium in the bladder referred to as?

A

urothelium

145
Q

do epithelial cells within the bladder produce mucus?

A

yes

146
Q

what purpose does the mucus in the bladder serve?

A

protects the bladder’s lining from acidity (think about the 6.8 pH limit of tissue)

147
Q

what is a key feature that you need to know about the muscularis externa in the GI tract?

A

inner muscularis externa is made of circular muscle, and the outer is made of longitudinal muscle

148
Q

what is a key feature that you need to know about the muscularis externa in the GI tract?

A

inner muscularis externa is made of longitudinal muscle, and the outer is made of circular muscle

149
Q

what is a key feature that you need to know about the muscularis externa in the GI tract?

A

inner muscularis externa is made of longitudinal muscle, and the outer is made of circular muscle

150
Q

what type of epithelium lines the urethra?

A

stratified squamous

151
Q

what type of epithelium lines the outlet of the urethra?

A

keretanised stratified squamous cells

152
Q

what is the conducting portion of the repiratory tract?

A

the nasal cavity to bronchioles section

153
Q

what is the respiratory section of the respiratory tract?

A

bronchioles to the alveoli section

154
Q

what are the two sections of the respiratory tract?

A

respiratory and conducting portions

155
Q

does the ureter have a submucosa?

A

yes

156
Q

does the GI tract have a submucosa?

A

yes

157
Q

does the ureter have a muscularis mucosa?

A

yes

158
Q

does the respiratory tract have a muscularis mucosa?

A

no

159
Q

does the trachea and the primary bronchi have a submucosa?

A

yes

160
Q

what type of glands are present in the trachea?

A

seromucus glands

161
Q

what do the seromucus glands secrete?

A

watery mucus

162
Q

where is the hyaline cartillage found?

A

in the trachea

163
Q

what shape is the hyaline cartillage in the trachea?

A

C-shaped

164
Q

what two layers is the hyaline cartillage made from?

A

perichondrium and chondrogenic layer

165
Q

what happens in the perichondrium layer of the hyaline cartillage?

A

fibroblasts lay down collagen fibres

166
Q

what happens in the chondrogenic layer of the hyaline cartillage?

A

cartillage is formed from it

167
Q

why can cartillage around the trachea be both hyaline and elastic?

A

because the cells can convert between chondroblasts and chondrocytes

168
Q

what type of epithelium do secondary and tertiary bronchi have?

A

psuedostratified cillated

169
Q

what is the role of elastin within the alveoli junctions?

A

to provide recoil to return sacs back to their empty state when air is breathed out.

170
Q

what types of cells line the alveoli and the capillary endotheliam that are at the alveoli sacs

A

specialised squamous epithelial cells that are fused to the same basal lamina as the other side.

171
Q

what fibres are between junctions on the alveoli sacs?

A

elastin and collagen.

172
Q

what is meant by mucocilliary escalator

A

a mechanism in the trachea where mucus is lifted up the trachea by cillia

173
Q

what cells come from the ectoderm?

A

epithelial (epidermal cells) and nervous cells?

174
Q

what cells come from the mesoderm?

A

mesenchymal cells (then connective cells), epithelial cells (mesothelium for the serous fluid)

175
Q

what are the serous membranes in the body?

A

peritoneal membrane, pleural membrane, pericardial cavities

176
Q

list epithelia where simple squamous epithelium are found?

A

lining of the heart and blood vessels, pleural and peritoneal cavities and alveoli

177
Q

list epithelia where simple cuboidal epithelial cells are found.

A

ducts of exocrine glands (accept thyroid and salivary glands), kidney tubules, suface of ovaries

178
Q

what are langerhans cells?

A

dendritic immune cells between the basal layer and the granular layer - in the stratum spinosum (spinous layer)

179
Q

what is the stratum corneum?

A

the layer of keratinised dead epidermal cells that protects the rest of the epidermis

180
Q

what are islet cells?

A

they are cells within islets of Langerhans which either produce glucose or insulin

181
Q

what are alpha cells?

A

cells within the islets of Langerhans that produce glucagon

182
Q

what are beta cells?

A

cells within the islets of Langerhans which produce insulin (as well as amylin)

183
Q

magnification of light microscopes

A

x600

184
Q

magnification of electron microscopes

A

x500,000

185
Q

resolution of light microscopes

A

0.25 micrometers

186
Q

resolution of electron microscopes

A

0.25 nanometers

187
Q

field of view of light microscopes

A

2 mm

188
Q

field of view of electron microscopes

A

100 micrometers

189
Q

what is the layer of keratinised dead epidermal cells that protects the rest of the epidermis?

A

stratum corneum

190
Q

where are Langerhans cells?

A

in the stratum spinosum (spinous layer)

191
Q

what cells within the islets of Langerhans produce insulin and amylin?

A

beta cells

192
Q

what cells within the islets of Langerhans produce glucagon?

A

alpha cells

193
Q

what type of epithelium do primary bronchi have?

A

cillated pseudostratified (collumnar) cells

194
Q

how long does it typically take to make a frozen section for biopsy?

A

10 to 20 minutes

195
Q

how long does it typically take to make a paraffin wax, formalin fixed

A

24-48 hours

196
Q

How long do paraffin wax formalin fixed sections last

A

permanently

197
Q

how long do frozen section stains last?

A

few months

198
Q

what application/purpose is frozen section used for (clinically)

A

intraoperative consultation

199
Q

what application/purpose is a paraffin embedded tissue section used for?

A

pathological diagnosis

Year 1 (1 decks)

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