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1
Q

Bone Functions

A 
Support
Protection
Storage
Blood Cell Production
Movement
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2
Q

Matrix

A

Ground Substance
Collagen - provides flexibility and tensile
Calcium Phosphate - provides compressive strength

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3
Q

Specialised Cells`

A

Osteoprogenitor - stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts
Osteoblasts - bone-building cells that secrete collagen and ground substance
Osteoclasts - bone resorbing cells that break down the matrix and release stored minerals
Osteocytes - mature bone cells that maintains the matrix

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4
Q

Interstitial Growth

A
  1. New cartilage forms at the top of the epiphyseal plate
  2. Bone replaces old cartilage at the bottom of the plate
  3. Diaphysis lengthens
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5
Q

Appositional Growth

A
  1. Osteoblasts beneath periosteum secrete new layers of matrix
  2. Osteoclasts remove old matrix slowly from inner surface to enlarge the medullary cavity
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6
Q

Bone Remodelling

A

Bone resorption - osteoclasts break down the old matrix

Bone deposition - osteoblasts produce new matrix

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7
Q

Fracture Repair

A
  1. Haematoma forms
    2, Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
  2. Bony callus forms
  3. Bome remodelling
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8
Q

Functional Joints

A

Synarthrosis - immovable
Amphiarthrosis - slightly movable
Diarthrosis - freely movable

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9
Q

Muscle Functions

A
  1. Produce body movements
  2. Maintains posture and body position
  3. Stabilises joints
  4. Generates heat
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10
Q

Muscle Characteristics

A
  1. Excitability
  2. Contractability
  3. Extensibility
  4. Elasticity
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11
Q

Muscle Contraction

A

STEP 1: Neural Stimulation - allows communication
STEP 2: Excitation-Contraction Coupling - links AP to contraction
STEP 3: Sliding Filament Theory

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12
Q

Layers of Heart Wall

A

Epicardium - outer cover, encloses the heart
Myocardium - muscular wall consisting of cardiac muscle cells, blood vessels, nerves and CT
Endocardium - epithelium covers the inner surfaces of the heart

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13
Q

Heart Valves

A 
AV Valves: 
- prevent backflow into atria
- chordae tendinae tense to prevent valves everting into atria
SL Valves: 
- forced open when ventricles contract
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14
Q

CAD

A

Angina pectoris - reduced blood flow to myocardium

Myocardial Infarction - prolonged coronary artery blockage

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15
Q

Intrinsic Conduction System

A

SA Nodes: generates impulses
AV Nodes: impulses pause
Bundle Branches: connect the atria to the ventricles
Purkinje Fibres: depolarise the contractile cells of both ventricles

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16
Q

ECG Deflections

A

P Wave - atrial depolarisation (systole)
QRS Complex - ventricular depolarisation (systole)
T Wave - ventricular repolarisation (diastole)

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17
Q

Factors Affecting Cardiac Output

A 
Stroke Volume
Venous Return
Passive Filling Time
Preload
Afterload
EDV
ESV
Heart Rate
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18
Q

Blood Vessel Walls

A 
Tunica Intima:
- innermost layer
- endothelial cells
Tunica Media:
- smooth muscle
- changes vessel diameter
Tunica Externa:
- connective tissue
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19
Q

Arteries & Arterioles

A

Elastic: conduct blood and are thick walled
Muscular: distribute blood and have a thick tunica media
Arterioles: mainly tunica media and change resistance to blood flow

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20
Q

Capillaires

A

Continuous
Fenestrated
Sinusodial

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21
Q

Venous Return

A 
Valves
Muscular Pump
Respiratory Pump
Pulsation
Venoconstriction
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22
Q

Regulation of Blood Pressure

A

Autoregulation
Neural Regulation
Renal Mechanisms
Endocrine Regulation

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23
Q

Bulk Flow

A

Hydrostatic = PUSH

Colloid Osmotic = PULL

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24
Q

Nasal Cavity

A 
Filters/Cleans the air
Warms and humidifies the air
Traps particulates
Kills Bacteria
Removes contaminated mucous
Sneezing dislodges irritants
Olfaction
Resonating chamber for speeech
25
Compliance
Depends on: - lung elasticity - alveolar surface tension - flexibility of muscles and joints
26
Obstructive Disorder
Caused by reduced airway diameter and increased resistance | Takes longer to achieve vital capacity
27
Restrictive Disorder
Caused by decreased compliance of lungs on thoracic wall | Inability to alter the volume of thoracic cavity
28
Surfactant
Prevents collapse, facilitated expansion Prevents dehydration and thus damage to the membrane Facilitates diffusion
29
Carbon Dioxide Transport
10% dissolved in plasma 20% bound to Hb 70% as bicarbonate ions in plasma
30
Oxygen Transport
Hb affinity for oxygen decreases when: - temperature increases - pH decreases - carbon dioxide increases
31
Plasma pH
``` Hyperventilation = increase pH Hypoventilation = decrease pH ```
32
Digestive Processes
``` Ingestion Propulsion Mechanical Digestion Chemical Digestion Absorption Defacation ```
33
Tissue Composition
From interior to exterior: - mucosa - submucosa - muscularis externa - serosa
34
Gastric Pits
HCl - activates pepsin, denatures proteins and destroys microorganisms Pepsin - enzyme for protein digestion Mucous - protects mucosa from HCl Hormones - control gut motility and secretions
35
Small Intestine
Duodenum Jejunum Ileum
36
Mucosa/Submucosa
Circular Fold: slows the movement of chyme which increase the time for absorption Villi: contains mucous-producing cells Microvilli: brush border
37
Brush Border
Plasma membrane bears enzymes that complete CHO, protein and nucleic acid digestion
38
Liver
Lobules are the structural and functional components Bile canaliculi run between hepatocytes to collect and drain bile into the portal triad Hepatocytes produce bile to emulsify fats
39
Gall Bladder
Stores and concentrates unused bile | Bile is secreted into the duodenum from the liver
40
Anabolic State
Within 4 hours of eating Nutrients are being absorbed from the small intestine Excess nutrients are stored
41
Catabolic State
More than 4 hours after eating Blood nutrients level decreases Stored nutrients are broken down
42
Nephron
Renal Corpuscle: glomerulus and glomerular capsule are specialised for filtration Renal Tubule: PCT, nephron loop and DCT
43
Blood Supply to Nephrons
Glomerular capillaries Peritubular capillaries Vasa Recta
44
Glomerular Filtration
Forms filtrate | Hydrostatic pressure drives filtration
45
Tubular Reabsorption
Reclaims filtrate Begins as soon as it enters the PCT Aldosterone stimulates cells in the DCT and CD to reabsorb more sodium
46
Tubular Secretion
Adds to filtrate Clears plasma of unwanted substances Secretion mainly occurs in PCT
47
Pathway of Urine
``` Papillae of pyramids Minor calyces Major calyces Pelvis Ureter Bladder ```
48
Aldosterone
Regulates electrolyte concentration in the ECF
49
Chemical Buffer Systems
Bicarbonate Buffer System Phosphate Buffer System Protein Buffer System
50
Pharmacokinetics
``` How the body effects the drug Absorption Distribution Metabolism Excretion ```
51
Pharmacodynamics
``` How the drug effects the body Carrier proteins Ion channels Receptors Enzymes ```
52
Cytokines
Produced and secreted by WBC | Chemical messengers the recruit/activate WBC
53
Macrophages & Neutrophils
``` Migrate Adhere Engulf Internalis Destroy ```
54
Natural Killer Cells
Destroy virus-infected and cancerous cells | Recognise, adhere and destroy target cells via perforins and granzymes
55
Interferons
Inhibit viral replication and reduce the spread of infection | Activate macrophages and NK cells
56
Complement
Recruit macrophages and neutrophils Enhance phagocytosis Form MAC Enhance inflammatory response
57
Normal Flora Infection
Upset ecological balance Relocation of normal flora Compromised host defences
58
Host Defences
``` Overcoming physical barriers Resisting phagocytes Forming a protective clot Antigenic variation Degrading antibodues ```

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