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Anatomy and Physiology II > Blood Vessels, Blood flow, Pressure,Vein,Arteries, immune > Flashcards

Blood Vessels, Blood flow, Pressure,Vein,Arteries, immune Flashcards

1
Q

Blood vessels

A

closed system

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2
Q

Systemic circulation

A

arteries carry oxygenated blood & veins carry deoxygenated blood

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3
Q

Three layers of blood vessels

A

Tunica Intima: closest to the lumen
Tunica Media: Middle layer where muscle tissue is found, where contraction and dilation occur.
Tunica Externa: Outer layer, where loose collagen and elastic fibers are found.

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4
Q

What are the three major blood vessels?

A

Arteries, veins, & capillaries

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5
Q

Arteries can be divided into 3 groups

A

Elastic, muscular, & arterioles

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6
Q

Elastic Arteries

A

Thick walls; largest diameter most elastic, large lumens; low resistance vessels, conducting arteries

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7
Q

Muscular Arteries

A

distributing arteries
* thickest tunica media = controls blood flow
* smaller lumen
* more muscle than elastic muscle
* vasomotor fibers keep blood vessels in a state of slight contraction

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8
Q

Arterioles

A

t. media is mostly smooth muscle with few elastic fibers
* lead right in capillaries
* smaller arterioles that feed into capillary beds are just a single layer of smooth muscle cells around an endothelial lining
* function = exchange

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9
Q

Veins

A

Venueles are formed by the unification of capillaries (So thin that WBCs leave through them to get to the rest of the body
* = endothelium
* larger venules have a thin t. Media & T. externa
* Do not have smooth muscle cells & elastic fibers

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10
Q

How are veins formed?

A

Venules join one another. 3 tunics but they are thinner than in arteries, with a wide lumen. Can hold a lot more blood compared to arteries
* blood reservoir

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11
Q

Tunica Externa in veins

A

thickest layer with thick longitudinal bundles of collagen & elastic fibers
* large veins in lower extremities must have valves(infoldings of t. Interna

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12
Q

Why are veins so important?

A

capacitance vessels & blood reservoirs because can hold large volumes of blood
* but blood pressure in veins is low & can’t overcome gravity. One solution = valves = folds of t. Intima that allow blood to flow only in 1 direction
* values only open when movement occurs

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13
Q

v. Vascular Anastomoses

A

Unification of vascular channels (merging of vascular channels)

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14
Q

Arterial Anastomoses

A

More than one artery supplying an organ or you have one that goes into the organ, but multiple branches stemming from that one

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15
Q

What is the purpose of having multiple arterial anastomoses?

A

In case something happens to one vessel (such as a blockage, or damage) the blood can flow through the others without causing problems for the entire system.

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16
Q

Where are arterial anastomoses more common around?

A

Joints, abdominal organs, the brain, and the heart

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17
Q

Where are arterial anastomoses poor?

A

Retina, kidney, & spleen

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18
Q

Arteriovenous Anastomoses

A

Artery connects directly to the venule without capillaries in between

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19
Q

Venous Anastomoses

A

Venules connect with venules without anything in between

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20
Q

Capillaries

A

Microscopic with thin walls
* only T. Intima
* a few smooth muscle cells on the exterior to stabilize the vessels called pericytes
* function = exchange of materials

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21
Q

What is the function of Capillaries?

A

to exchange material

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22
Q

3 types of Capillaries

A

Continuous, fenestrated, & Sinusodia

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23
Q

Continuous Capillaries

A

endothelial cells from a continuous lining with cells joined by tight junctions
* gaps called intercellular clefts (fluids and small solutes can pass through)
* simple squamous
* exception: brain capillaries (no intercellular clefts )
* the least permeable capillaries

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24
Q

Fenestrated Capillaries

A

endothelial cells have pores or fenestrations. More permeable than continuous. Found in areas of active capillary absorption:
* have tight junctions
* found in areas of absorption and endocrine organs and filtrate formation (kidneys): fluid that has solid in it.

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25
Q

Sinusoid Capillaries

A

found in bone marrow, when blood cells are made
* large lumen & irregularly shaped fenestration’s fewer tight junctions
* larger intercellular clefts
* In the liver: endothelium discontinuous, with large macrophages called kupffer (macrophages found In the liver)
* The liver is the workhorse organ of the body
* synthesize plasma proteins and blood clotting factors

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26
Q

What organ is the workhorse of the body?

A

The liver

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27
Q

Kupffer Cells

A

macrophages found in the liver

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28
Q

In what organs are phagocyte cells on the exterior, and what is their purpose?

A

In other organs such as the spleen: phagocyte cells are on exterior and send cytoplasmic extensions through the clefts

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29
Q

Capillaries interconnect and form

A

capillary beds or capillary plexuses
* microcirculation = blood → capillary bed → venule (blood leaving an arterial to capillary to venule)
* most capillary beds have 2 types of vessels:- a vascular shunt or metarteriole thoroughfare channel &, true capillaries

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30
Q

most capillary beds have 2 types of vessels

A

a Vascular shunt or metarteriole thoroughfare channel &, True capillaries

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31
Q

True Capillaries

A

exchange vessels (exchange only happens here ) (branches off metarteriole)

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31
Q

What happens during a contraction?

A

Blood flow is stopped, blocks off true capillaries (blood circulation is cut off)

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32
Q

What happens during relaxation?

A

Blood flow continues

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33
Q

PreCapillary sphincters

A

cuffs of smooth muscle, that act as valves

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34
Q

Open Capillary Spincters

A

capillaries are in a slight state of constriction due to vasomotor fibers controlled by the nervous system

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35
Q

Closed Capillary Spincters

A

if there is nothing to absorb (local chemical conditions) true capillaries stay closed ( local chemical conditions and arteriolar vasomotor nerve fibers control this)

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36
Q

IV venous system

A

Join together

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37
Q

Arteries

A

Pressure Reservoir & conducting vesssels

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38
Q

Arterioles

A

Resistance Vessels

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39
Q

Capillaries

A

Exchange Vessels

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40
Q

Veins

A

Blood reservoir & conducting vessels

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41
Q

Blood flow

A

Volume of blood flowing through a vessel organ or entire circulation in a given period (mL/ min)

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42
Q

Blood Pressure (BP)

A

Force per unit area on the wall of a vessel bt the blood contained therein, in mmHg

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43
Q

systemic Arteriole Blood Pressure

A

the pressure measured within large arteries in the systemic circulation

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44
Q

Resistance

A

a measure of the friction of blood encounters in the systemic or peripheral circulation

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45
Q

Peripheral Resistance

A

meeting resistance in the peripheral circulation (away from the heart )

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46
Q

Causes of resistance

A

blood viscosity, blood vessel length & diameter

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47
Q

Blood Viscosity

A

thickness of blood

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48
Q

Vessel Length

A

the longer the vessel the greater the resistance.
The more fat added to the body the more the vessels have to lengthen to accommodate, creating more resistance

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49
Q

Vessel Diameter

A

not constant in the body
-The smaller the diameter, the higher the resistance = arterioles
-The larger the diameter, the lower the resistance = large arteries

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50
Q

Blood from larger vessels

A

goes into smaller vessels, with higher resistance & blood flow becomes turbulent

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51
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

hardening of the atheroma (plaque build-up in vessels)

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52
Q

Calculation of blood flow

A

Fa(blood flow) = delta P (change in pressure)/ R (resistance)

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53
Q

Proportionality of blood flow to pressure and resistance

A

Blood flow is Directly proportional to changes in Pressure. As delta P increases = Blood flow increases
Blood flow is Indirectly proportional to Resistance. As R increases = Blood flow decreases

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54
Q

Blood flows along a pressure gradient, in a closed circuit

A

In a closed circuit, the closer the fluid is to the pump, the higher the pressure.
Therefore systemic b.p. Is highest in the aorta (120 mmHg) and reduces to 2 mmHg at the vena cava.
* resistance is high in the aorta due to only one aorta and only one path
* but having multiple arteries and capillaries, blood vessels, and veins decreases resistance and pressure within the system

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55
Q

Arterial b.p. is an indicator of

A

how much the elastic arteries close to the heart can be stretched, & the volume of blood moving through them.
* near the heart bp rises & falls = pulsatile pressure.
Arteriosclerosis increases blood pressure

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56
Q

Pulsatile Pressure

A

Near the heart bp rises and falls

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57
Q

Systolic pressure

A

Left ventricle contracts, blood flows into the aorta and stretches it & aortic pressure teachers its peak ~120 mmHg

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58
Q

Diastolic pressure

A

Aortic valves close & walls of the aorta recoil BUT maintains enough pressure to keep blood flowing to smaller vessels ~ 70-80 mmHg

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59
Q

Heart distance to MAP

A

MAP & pulse pressure decreases with an increase in distance from the heart
The further you move from the pump (the heart) MAP and pulse pressure decrease

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60
Q

Pulse Pressure

A

The difference between systolic & diastolic
Pulse pressure = Systolic - Diastolic
Pulse pressure INCREASES with stroke volume

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60
Q

MAP = mean arterial pressure

A

pressure moving blood through the tissues
MAP = (diastolic pressure + pulse pressure )/ 3

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61
Q

Capillary B.P.

A

at the start of capillaries ~ 30mmHg
At the end of capillaries ~ 15mmHg
Low pressure due to thinness
Filtrate = fluid with solutes

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62
Q

Venous b.p.

A

Is steady. Pressure gradient from venules to vena cavae is ~15mmHg
Is too low for venous return, so veins get help by:
* the respiratory pump = pressure increases in the abdominal region due to the diaphragm moving down creating a decreased volume & increase in pressure.
* The muscular pump = muscles need to contract to push blood (milking the veins ) up and deliver blood.
* layer of smooth muscle around veins = contraction helps move blood through

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63
Q

The muscular pump

A

muscles need to contract to push blood (milking the veins ) up and deliver blood.

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64
Q

Neutral Mechanisms

A

Vasomotor control of the medulla, baroreceptors, chemo receptors, & higher brain control

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65
Q

Maintaining B.P. = Homeostasis

A

An equal balance throughout body; illness occurs when homeostasis is thrown off

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66
Q

Vasomotor control

A

a cluster of neurons in the medulla that send impulses to sympathetic fibers called vasomotor fibers
-smooth muscle of blood vessels especially arterioles

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67
Q

Vasomotor tone

A

arterioles always in a state of mild constriction

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68
Q

Accommodations of the nervous system

A

The nervous system can make accommodations for parts of the body that are being used

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69
Q

Vasomotor activity can be modified by

A

Baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and higher brain controls

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70
Q

Baroreceptor reflexes

A
  • Arterial b.p. Increases when the stretch of baroreceptors in carotid sinuses aortic arch & large neck & thoracic arteries → impulses to vasomotor control for inhibition (inhibits vasomotor construction) → vasodilation leads to decrease in b.p.
  • arterial b.p. increases when baroreceptors stretch → inhibition of cardiac. control which leads to a decrease in heart rate and a decrease in b.p.
  • arterial b.p. Decrease which leads to vasoconstriction an increase in cardiac output and an increase in b.p..
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71
Q

Chemoreceptor reflexes

A

respond to chemicals in the blood
-Oxygen decreases, pH of the blood decreases or carbon dioxide levels increase which leads to impulses being sent by chemoreceptors in the aortic arch & large arteries of the neck. → cardiac, control → increase in cardiac output

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72
Q

Higher Brain controls

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Nervous system
  • Endocrine system
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73
Q

Short term mechanisms

A

hormonal (nervous system & endocrine system

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74
Q

Adrenal medulla hormones (epinephrine)

A

increase vasoconstriction increase blood pressure

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75
Q

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)(Synthesized by atria)

A

causes blood volume to decrease, decrease b.p.

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76
Q

ADH

A

stimulates kidneys to retain water → increase in blood volume → increase in b.p.

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77
Q

What happens when the kidneys release renin?

A

Kidneys release renin → activates angiotensin II (most potent vasoconstrictor in the body) → vasoconstriction

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78
Q

What does renin do?

A

Renin → stimulates aldosterone (retain sodium → leads to water retention & blood volume & blood pressure increase) & ADH

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79
Q

Long Term mechanism

A

Renal (kidney /urinary system)
* renal regulation works by altering blood volume.
* directly, renal regulation is independent of hormones
* indirectly, renal regulation utilizes the hormone renin.

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80
Q

Vital Signs

A

heart rate, respiration, & oxygen saturation

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81
Q

A pulse

A

alternating expansion & recoil of arteries in each cardiac cycle → a pressure wave of blood
* The most common pulse that is measured is radial pulse - also known as pressure points (apply pressure & decrease blood flow)

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82
Q

How do we measure systemic arterial B.P.

A

indirectly in the brachial artery by the auscultatory method.

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83
Q

Sounds of korotkoff

A

1st sound = systolic pressure (artery begins to open and contract)

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83
Q

Sphygmomanometer

A

B.P. Cuff (placed superiorly to the elbow, constricts brachial artery)

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84
Q

sound ends

A

diastolic pressure (where the sound stops)

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84
Q

Factors affecting B.P.

A

sodium levels, stress, race, obesity, age, blood clotting

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85
Q

Normal adults systolic & diastolic

A

Systolic = 110- 120 mmHg
Diastolic = 70 - 80 mmHg

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85
Q

Hypotension

A

Low blood pressure ( diastolic is less than 70 mmHg)

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86
Q

Orthostatic Hypotension

A

temporary low B.P. Usually accompanied by dizziness (mainly happens in the elderly, due to continuous sitting or lying down)

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87
Q

Chronic Hypotension

A

due to poor nutrition (long term) (lack of protein to make hemoglobin (plasma protein). (Due to hypothyroidism. & Addison’s disease ).

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88
Q

Acute Hypotension

A

Rapid/ instantaneous B.P. drop (circulatory shock, not enough blood flowing through the system)

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89
Q

Hypertension

A

rise in blood pressure

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90
Q

Transient (temporary) hypertension

A

normal increase in systolic pressure (illness or stress-related)

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91
Q

Persistent Hypertension

A

continuous high blood pressure
-increased peripheral resistance. Strains the heart and damage arteries (sustained high blood pressure)
*Primary or essential hypertension = 90% hypertension cases (no definitive cause

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92
Q

Certain factors are believed to cause hypertension such as

A

smoking, stress, high salt intake

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93
Q

Secondary hypertension due to identifiable disorders

A

10% of all cases:
-blocked renal arteries
-kidney failure
-hyperthyroidism
-thyroid disorders

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94
Q

Tissue Perfusion

A

Blood flows through body tissue. It allows:
-Fuel lungs + gas exchange
-Urine making
-Absorb nutrients from the digestive system
-20% of blood flow →skeletal muscles
* In exercise it shunts blood from other systems to get to skeletal muscles

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95
Q

Blood Velocity

A

The velocity of blood flow is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.
* aorta & large arteries - fast flow (blood)
* capillaries - slow flow through (blood) (exchange happens )
* veins-slow flow
Cross section of aorta = 2.5cm → 40 - 50 cm/sec (flow of blood)
Cross section of combined capillaries = 4500 cm →0.03 cm/sec (flow of blood)

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96
Q

Capillary blood flow

A

slow due to the exchange of materials and diameter of capillaries

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97
Q

Autoregulation

A

automatic regulation of blood flow to each tissue in proportion to requirements (each organ system can regulate blood flow) (does no damage to the system)

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98
Q

MAP and CO are constant why? and what is its purpose?

A

MAP & CO are constant in order to have constant pressure. Therefore, changes in blood flow to individual organs are local or intrinsic, by changing the diameter of the arterioles; in essence, changing the resistance of the arterioles.

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99
Q

Myogenic

A

smooth muscle controls (t. Media)
* increase in, intravascular pressure → increase in stretch → vasoconstriction (protect organ)
* decrease in intravascular pressure

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100
Q

Metabolic

A

decrease in oxygen & decrease in nutrients = stimuli → relaxation of vascular smooth muscles
* inflammation chems (histamine, kinins & prostaglandins → vasodilation
* vasodilation on arterioles → temporary increase of blood flow

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101
Q

What is the purpose of long-term autoregulation?

A

Long-term autoregulation can occur over time to increase blood flow; that is angiogenesis = making the lengthening of blood vessels

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102
Q

angiogenesis

A

making lengthening of blood vessels

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103
Q

How is Blood flow maintained in various areas of the body even when fluctuating MAP?

A

-Skeletal muscles: blood flow varies with fiber type & muscle activity.
* active or exercise hyperemia = shunting blood from other systems to the skeletal muscles

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104
Q

Brain and blood flow

A

Brain: blood flow to the brain is ~ 750 ml/min
* decrease in pH & increase in carbon dioxide = vasodilation
* decrease in MAP = vasodilation to bring more blood flow to the brain to maintain pressure
* increase in MAP = vasoconstriction
* b.p. falls (60 mmHg) = fainting (syncope)
* Brain is less able to compensate for extreme press changes: cerebra edema = brain swelling

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105
Q

Skin and blood flow

A

-Skin: blood flow is to supply nutrients & help maintain body temperature.
* lots of arteriovenous anastomoses below the skin which are supplied by sympathetic nerve endings
* blood vessels vasoconstrictor when cold to regulate temperature (to shunt blood to the core of the body)
* Heat = vasodilation of vessels so the core doesn’t overheat.

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106
Q

Lungs and Blood Flow

A

Lungs: pressure is low ~ 10 mmHg
* low oxygen in lungs →> constriction of blood vessels (vasoconstriction) (opposite in lungs due to oxygen being picked up )
* increased oxygen in lungs →> opening of blood vessels (vasodilation )( In other organs loss of oxygen would cause vasodilation )

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107
Q

Heart and Blood flow

A

Heart: hemoglobin in cardiac cells store enough oxygen for the heart muscle in systole.
* blood flow is intermittent.
* myoglobin stores oxygen when constriction occurs

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107
Q

Blood flow through capillaries is slow & intermittent, why?

A

because of capillary sphincters = vasomotion
* The 3 processes moving materials across capillary walls = diffusion filtration & reabsorption

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108
Q

What are the 3 processes moving materials across capillary walls?

A

Diffusion, filtration, & reabsorption

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109
Q

What happens during bulk fluid flow?
What does this determine?

A

But, bulk fluid flow ( fluid leaves capillaries to maintain) is also happening. Fluid is forced out of the capillaries at the arteriole end, and most will return to the capillaries at the venous end.
-This determines the relative fluid in the bloodstream & the EC space.

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110
Q

oxygen, carbon dioxide, most nutrients & metabolic wastes diffuse, where?
What is diffusion?

A

oxygen, carbon dioxide, most nutrients & metabolic wastes diffuse between blood & interstitial fluid
* diffusion = flow down a concentration gradient. (Oxygen & nutrients flow down capillaries (down concentration gradient)
* lipid-soluble molecules = insoluble
* small water-soluble molecules = goes in between
* large water-soluble molecules = fenestrated capillaries used
* large molecules like proteins = active transport

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111
Q

Hydrostatic pressure = HP

A

the pressure of the fluid against the container (capillary wall) capillary hydrostatic pressure = blood pressure.
* In capillaries = CHP = capillary b.p. = 35mmHg (capillary hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out)
* CHP forces fluid through capillary walls
* as b.p. Drops along a capillary bed: CHP is higher at the arteriole end than the venous end (18 mmHg due to movement of fluid out

112
Q

In capillaries = CHP = capillary hydrostatic pressure

A

35mmHg (capillary hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out)
* CHP forces fluid through capillary walls
* as b.p. Drops along a capillary bed: CHP is higher at the arteriole end than the venous end (18 mmHg due to movement of fluid out

113
Q

interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure =IHP

A

IHP = 0
* lymphatic vessels take away extra fluid to not exert any pressure on interstitial fluid
* Net hydrostatic pressure = capillary hydrostatic pressure - IHP
Therefore net HP at the arterial & venous end of the capillary bed=CHP at these areas

114
Q

Colloid osmotic pressures
Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure =ICOP = 0

A

pressures by the large molecules in the capillaries that can’t diffuse out
* albumin pulls fluid back into capillaries
* These large molecules create the blood colloid osmotic pressure Or BCOP or osmotic pressure ~ 25 mmHg

115
Q

Circulatory shock

A

any condition where blood vessels are not filled & / or blood cannot circulate normally
* not enough blood getting through the system
* most common (hypovolemic)

116
Q

Net osmotic pressure

A

pressure pulling back fluid into the capillaries = BCOP - ICOP = 25 mmHg
* Net gain or net loss of fluid from blood = net filtration pressure (NFP )
* HP>BCOP (blood flows out)
* BCOP>HP (blood flows in)
* NFP =(CHP - IHP) - (BCOP -ICOP) = arteriole
* fluid is forced out at the arterial end of the capillaries & return at the venous end.
* more fluid leaves than that is reabsorbed

117
Q

Hypovolemic shock

A

most common = compensation occurs when cardiac output is low, so HR increases
Fluids are added to maintain b.p.

118
Q

Cardiogenic shock

A

= failure pump = when heart fails, heart can’t pump blood through out system = heart attacks

119
Q

Vascular shock

A

blood volume is normal, but circulation is poor due to extreme vasodilation
* causes = vasodilation triggered by anaphylactic shock (system-wide vasodilation) (allergic reaction)

120
Q

Neurogenic shock

A

= failure of ANS regulation of blood vessels (when sympathetic N.S. Doesn’t work)

121
Q

2 main circulations of the body

A

Pulmonary, and Systemic

122
Q

Septic shock

A

septicemia due to severe systemic bacterial infection.

123
Q

Pulmonary circulation function

A

to get blood vessels close enough to the air sacs of the lungs to get oxygenated

124
Q

Systemic circulation function

A

to get blood through the entire system / body

125
Q

Pulmonary circulation flow

A

Blood in the right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries, which divide in lungs → lobar arteries → arterioles (3 right lobes & 2 left lobes ) → capillaries → venules which join → 2 pulmonary veins from each lung (4 pulmonary veins)

126
Q

System Arteries and Veins

A

Systemic arteries & veins take different pathways:
* heart pumps blood into 1 systemic artery: the aorta and 2 veins the superior and inferior vena cavae

127
Q

How do arteries of the systemic circulation run?
How do veins run in systemic circulation?

A

All arteries run deep & well protected by body tissues
Veins have more interconnections

128
Q

2 of the venous systems are unique

A

dural sinuses that drain blood from the brain, and the hepatic portal circulation

129
Q

All systemic circulation branches from where?

A

The aorta
* arteries of the head, neck, lower & upper extremities are bilaterally symmetrical
* The abdominal region is asymmetrical

130
Q

The Aorta and its branches

A
  • as it leaves the left ventricle it is the ascending aorta. Only branches = right and left coronary arteries
  • ascending curves to the left as the aortic arch. 3 main branches:
    - brachiocephalic trunk = runs under clavicle branches Off into two: the right common carotid & right subclavian
    - left common carotid
    - left subclavian = supplies head, neck, upper limbs & part of thoracic wall
  • Descending or Thoracic Aorta = sends branches to thoracic wall,& visceral organs
    - becomes the abdominal aorta inferior to the diaphragm
    - supplies abdominal wall & abdominal organs
    - abdominal aorta splits into the right & left common iliac arteries for the pelvis & lower limbs
131
Q

The aortic arch contains what 3 branches?

A
  • brachiocephalic trunk = runs under clavicle branches Off into two: the right common carotid & right subclavian
    - left common carotid
    - left subclavian = supplies head, neck, upper limbs & part of thoracic wall
132
Q

Where does the descending aorta or the thoracic aorta send branches?

A

sends branches to the thoracic wall,& visceral organs
- becomes the abdominal aorta inferior to the diaphragm
- supplies abdominal wall & abdominal organs
- abdominal aorta splits into the right & left common iliac arteries for the pelvis & lower limbs

133
Q

Arteries of the head and neck

A

4 pairs of arteries serve the head & neck = common carotid arteries & 3 branches from each subclavian artery:
* vertebral artery
* thyrocervical trunk
* costocervical trunk

134
Q

Each carotid artery divides into

A

Each carotid artery divides into internal & external carotid arteries.
* carotid sinus = contains baroreceptors
* both carotid arteries run superiorly up the lateral neck, at the superior larynx, each branches into external & internal carotid arteries

135
Q

The external carotid artery

A

supplies most of the head except for the brain & organs
* send branches to the thyroid & larynx, tongue, skin, & muscles of the anterior face( facial artery) & posterior scalp(occipital artery).
* each splits to end as temporal ( superficial, supplies carotid gland / salivary gland)arteries & maxillary ( lingual artery( supplies upper & lower jaws & teeth))arteries

136
Q

Internal Carotid Arteries

A

runs through the carotid a canal entering the skull, supplying 80% of the brain & organs (eyes)
* divides into 3 branches:
- ophthalmic artery (eyes & forehead)
- anterior cerebral artery (frontal lobe & parietal lobes of brain)
- middle cerebral artery (lateral hemispheres of the brain )

137
Q

Anterior communicating artery

A

short artery shunt where anterior cerebral anastomose

138
Q

Vertebral arteries from the subclavian

A

runs through the transverse vertebral to the skull through the foramen magnum

139
Q

Basilar Artery

A

Created by the joining of the right and left vertebral arteries; runs off the brainstem, sends off branches to the cerebellum, pons, and inner ear.

140
Q

At the pons midbrain border, the basilar divides into

A

a pair of posterior cerebral arteries (Comes from a vertebral artery). These connect to the middle cerebral arteries by arterial shunts called posterior communicating arteries

141
Q

posterior communicating arteries

A

Arterial shunts that connect the middle cerebral arteries

142
Q

Cerebral arterial circle or circle of Willis

A

posterior & anterior communicating arteries, & the anterior cerebral & posterior cerebral

143
Q

Upper limbs supplied by branches of the

A

Subclavian

143
Q

Why do many arteries surround the pituitary gland and chiasma?

A
  • multiple arteries due to collateral circulation: many arteries for one in case a clot occurs another route is available
144
Q

Pathway of Subclavian

A

Each subclavian (runs laterally over the first rib and under the clavicle ) → axilla where it is called the axillary artery (branches off the subclavian )
* thorax wall supplied from branches of the thoracic aorta & subclavian
* most visceral organs supplied from branches of the thoracic aorta

145
Q

Axillary artery

A

supplies chest wall and other branches:
-thoracoacromial artery
-lateral thoracic artery
-Subscapular artery
-Anterior and posterior humeral circumflex arteries

146
Q

Thoracoacromial artery

A

Supplies deltoid pectoralis muscles

147
Q

Lateral thoracic artery

A

supplies lateral thoracic walls & breasts

148
Q

Subscapular artery

A

supplies scapula posterior thoracic wall & part of the latissamus dorsi

149
Q

Anterior and posterior humeral circumflex arteries

A

raps around the humorous, supplies shoulder joint and part of the deltoid

150
Q

As the axial artery leaves the axillary what artery does it become?

A

Brachial artery

151
Q

Brachial Artery

A

runs down anterior medial aspect and supplies flexors of arm (muscle)
* one major branch= deep brachial (supplies extensors (muscles))
* below the elbow brachial splits into the radial & ulnar arteries

152
Q

Thorax Wall

A
  • subclavian gives rise to internal thoracic arteries or mammary arteries
  • internal thoracic arteries run lateral to the sternum & give Off the anterior intercostal arteries
  • thoracic aorta also branches into superior phrenic arteries = diaphragm splits Off intercostal
  • Superior diaphragm
153
Q

Thoracic viscera

A

From the thoracic aorta
* pericardial arteries (supplies pericardium of heart)
* bronchial arteries = two left and one right supplies bronchi, lungs,& pleura
* esophageal arteries = supplies esophagus
* mediastinal arteries= supplies mediastinal area

154
Q

Arteries of the Abdomen

A

All arise from the abdominal aorta
All are paired except, celiac trunk, & superior & inferior mesenteric arteries

155
Q

Inferior phrenic (diaphragm) arteries =

A

supplies diaphragm (branches off abdominal aorta )

156
Q

(2nd branch) Celiac trunk (unpaired) =splits into 3:

A
  • common hepatic
  • left gastric
157
Q

Common Hepatic

A

sends branches to parts of the stomach, pancreas, and duodenum, the major branch = the hepatic artery proper takes blood to the liver. Branches as the hepatic artery proper which splits into right & left.

158
Q

left gastric

A

supplies parts of the stomach & esophagus

159
Q

Superior mesenteric artery

A

supplies all of the small intestine and most of the large intestine

160
Q

suprarenal arteries

A

supplies adrenal glands

161
Q

Renal arteries

A

right and left kdney

162
Q

Gonadal arteries

A

testicular arteries in men and ovarian arteries in women

163
Q

Inferior mesenteric arteries

A

supplies distal large intestine

164
Q

Lumbar Arteries

A

supplies posterior/lumbar region (4 pairs of arteries)

165
Q

Right and Left common Iliac arteries

A

split from abdominal Aorta, supplies pelvis & lower extremities.

166
Q

Internal iliac arteries

A

supplies pelvic wall, rectum & bladder, uterus & vagina, prostate gland & vas deferens
* branches includes, superior & inferior gluteal arteries ( supplies gluteal muscles), obturator arteries( supplies external genetalia , & internal pudendal arteries ( medial thigh abductor muscle)

166
Q

At sacroiliac joints, common iliac arteries divide into

A

internal & external iliac arteries

167
Q

External iliac arteries

A

as enters the thigh, and branches into the femoral arteries

168
Q

Femoral arteries

A

supplies anterior medial thigh wraps around supple fascia )
* branches include deep femoral which branches into the lateral and medial femoral circumflex arteries (supplies most of the thigh muscle (quadriceps, hamstring)

169
Q

Anterior tibial artery

A

runs down the anterior tibial
* becomes dorsalis pedis artery in the foot (serves ankle & foot).

170
Q

Popliteal Artery

A

Supplies knee region

171
Q

Posterior tibial artery

A

runs down posterior
- branches include fibular or peroneal artery ( supplies lateral muscle)
- at ankle, it divides into lateral & medial plantar arteries (supplies plantar)

172
Q

Superior vena cava

A

formed by right & left brachiocephalic veins. Each brachiocephalic vein is formed by the union of the internal jugular & subclavian veins

172
Q

Arteries _______, veins _____ into something else going ___

A

Branch, drain, up

173
Q

Inferior vena cava

A

largest blood vessel & widest in body. Formed by the union of the pair of common iliac veins

174
Q

Vein don’t ______, they ________

A

branch, merge

175
Q

External jugular vein

A

empties into subclavian, over the external of the skull, drains the scalp, and part of the face & empties into the subclavian

176
Q

Internal Jugular vein

A

empties into the brachiocephalic trunk receives all blood from the brain & facial vein

177
Q

Vertebral vein

A

empties into the brachiocephalic trunk, drains vertebrae, spinal cord, and neck muscle, & empties into the brachiocephalic.

178
Q

Most veins of the brain drain into the ______ → other sinuses →(empties into) ______ veins

A

dural sinuses, Internal jugular veins

179
Q

Brachiocephalic make up

A

Internal jugular vein + subclavian vein

180
Q

2 Brachiocephalics join to form

A

superior vena cava

181
Q

Medial Cubital vein

A

take blood to do tests (close to skin surface / superficial)

182
Q

Brachiocephalic Veins

A

drains most of the mammary region (breasts). Intercoastal veins 1,2,3 empties in brachiocephalic veins

183
Q

Azygos System

A

drains all viscera of the thorax & thoracic wall

184
Q

Veins of the upper limbs pathway

A

Deep palmar veins merge to form radial & ulnar veins which merge to form the brachial vein → axillary vein → subclavian vein.

185
Q

The superficial venous arch drains into 3 major superficial veins

A

3 major superficial veins:
* cephalic
* basilic
* median antebrachial

186
Q

Basilic vein

A

merges with brachial vein to form axillary vein

186
Q

Cephalic vein

A

drains into axillary

186
Q

Azygos vein

A

originates from the right ascending lumbar vein (abdominal) and drains most of the thoracic region. Empties into superior vena cava

187
Q

Homozygous vein

A

empties into azygos

188
Q

Azygous system

A

Homozygous vein
Azygous vein

189
Q

Lumbar veins

A

drains posterior abdominal wall

190
Q

Veins of the abdomen

A

All empty into the hepatic portal vein → liver →The veins then branch into capillaries, they then combine again to go back to veins = a portal system

191
Q

Hepatic portal system

A

carries blood filled with nutrients from the digestive organs to the liver
* (liver) hepatocytes - take up nutrients
* Kuffer cells = phagocytes

192
Q

Gonadal Veins

A

right empties into the vena cava (testicular veins in males and ovarian veins in females)

193
Q

Renal veins

A

right and left drains the kidneys

194
Q

Suprarenal veins

A

right empties into the inferior vena cava from the adrenal glands (drains adrenal glands, left adrenal veins empties into left renal vein due to proximity)

195
Q

Hepatic Portal system

A

All capillaries empty into the hepatic portal vein (hepatic portal vein -> capillaries -> combined to form hepatic vein

196
Q

Cystic Veins

A

drains gallbladder, empties into hepatic veins (gallbladder)

197
Q

Superior Mesenteric Vein

A

Drains all small intestine, 2/3 of the large intestine, the stomach, & parts of the pancreas

198
Q

Splenic Vein

A

drains the spleen, parts of the stomach, and pancreas (joins the superior mesenteric vein to form hepatic portal vein)

199
Q

Inferior mesenteric vein

A

drains distal 1/3 of the large intestine & rectum (joins splenic vein & superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein)

200
Q

Medial & lateral plantar veins unite to form?
Dorsalis pedis vein continues as the
The popliteal continues as the? and drains the?

A

-posterior tibial joined by fibular vein and goes to back of the knee to form popliteal
- as the anterior tibial vein. This joins the posterior tibial at the Renee to form the popliteal vein
-popliteal continues as the femoral vein = drains all muscles in the thigh
* femoral vein → pelvis & becomes the exterior iliac to form common iliac vein (two common iliac veins combine to form inferior vena cava.

201
Q

Superficial veins pathway

A
  • dorsal venous arch → great & small saphenous veins
  • great saphenous = longest vein in body (runs medially up leg & thigh ) (when a parent needs a coronary bypass, a piece is taken from great saphenous ). Empties into femoral veins
  • small (lesser) saphenous = runs laterally → posteriorly → empties into the popliteal vein (starts at the dorsal venous vein).
202
Q

The lymphatic system can be divided into two:

A

Lymphatic vessels and Lymphatic tissues

203
Q

Lymphatic tissues

A

have phagocytic cells and lymphocytes so they can trigger an immune response.
- primarily reticular connective tissue in all lymphoid organs
* macrophages sit on top of fibers
* lymphocytes sit in between fibers

203
Q

Lymphatic vessels

A

picks up lymph
-picks up interstitial fluid becomes lymph and are sent to the circulatory system to go to the heart
* have valves just like veins
* none in bone marrow, bones, teeth, & in the central nervous nervous system.

204
Q

Lymphatic vessels and lymphatics

A

Fluid from capillaries & any escaped plasma proteins must be returned to the CV system. This is done by lymphatic vessels or lymphatics

205
Q

When Interstitial fluid that enters the lymphatics

A

pressure builds up when the area begins to fill up with fluid which forces open valves and fluid moves into lymphatic capillaries

206
Q

A. Lymphatic vessels form a one-way system to the heart.

A
  • The system begins as blind-ended lymphatic capillaries between tissue cells, & blood capillaries. All over the body except bone marrow, bone, teeth,& in the central nervous system.
  • very permeable
  • pressure increases in interstitial fluid til it is greater than in lymphatic capillaries
  • pressure increases in lymph capillaries
    - takes up escaped nutrients
    -takes up excess lymph
    -absorbed gas from digestive fats from the digestive system
  • lymphatic capillaries will pass through lymph nodes = takes care of bacteria that enter.
207
Q

Lacteals

A

specialized lymphatic capillaries in the mucosa of the intestines
* lymphatic capillaries → collecting vessels → trunks → ducts
* lymph - collecting vessels = have intima, media & externa
* have a lot more valves, and anastomoses, compared to veins
* but like veins they are superficial & deep
* large collecting vessels join to form lymphatic trunks = a pair of lumbar trunks,2 bronchomediastinal trunks, 2 subclavian trunks, 2 jugular trunks( empties head & neck),& 1 intestinal trunk

208
Q

Right lymphatic duct

A

drains the right side of the head, right side of the neck, right of the thorax, and right upper extremities

209
Q

Chyle

A

Lymph that is a milky color, and carries digestive fats taken by everybody in the body due to being picked up by lymphatic capillaries

210
Q

Large thoracic duct

A

Brain everything else including the left side of the head, the left side of the neck, the left side of the thorax
- first seen as an enlarged area called cisterna chyli
* each duct empties into venous circulation = and needs valves, veins, musculatory respiratory pump.

211
Q

Lymphoid organs are composed of

A

lymphoid cells and lymphoid tissues

212
Q

Lymphoid cells

A

originates in bone marrow
- microbes entering our bodies are dealt with by the inflammatory response, phagocytes & lymphocytes
- the main cell of the immune system = protects you against antigens - anything that can evoke an immune response (anything the body sees as foreign ).
- T & B cells protect against Ags (antigens)
- T cells = manage immune response
-B cells = produces antibodies = mobilizes antigens

213
Q

T cells

A

manage immune response

214
Q

B cells

A

Produce antibodies, mobilizes antigens

215
Q

Macrophages

A

phagocytic cells activates T cells

216
Q

Dendritic cells

A

holds onto antigens

217
Q

Reticular cells

A

provide structural support

218
Q

Lymphoid tissue can occur as

A
  • diffuse lymphatic tissue = have patchy areas within lymphocytes & macrophages
  • lymphoid nodules or follicles = circular structure
  • have light staining centers called germinal centers
    • have B cells that develop into plasma cel is and release antibodies
      • found in intestinal walls as Peyer’S patches & in appendix.
219
Q

Where do lymphatic vessels run?

A

All throughout the body

220
Q

Lymph nodes

A

are bean-shaped with a dense fibrous capsule that sends strands inward as trabecular to divide the node into compartments
* internally - outer cortex & inner medulla
* superficial cortex = have lots of B cells
* deep cortex= have lots of T cells
* lymphoid cortical tissue extends into medulla as medullary cords
* medulla has medulla or lymph sinuses = sinusoidal capillaries

221
Q

Lymph enters the node at

A

convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels → sub-capsular sinuses → deep cortex → medulla & exits at the hills via efferent vessels found in Hilum =Indented area of organ
* one efferent vessel so lymph can leave slowly & everything can activate
* lymphoid = only lymphatic organ that filters lymph

222
Q

What filters lymph?

A

Only lymph nodes filter lymph,

223
Q

Spleen (size of a fist)

A

largest lymphoid organ - just underneath the diaphragm in the left abdominal cavity - curls around the anterior stomach
* served by splenic artery & vein = enters and leaves from Hilum of the spleen.
* Stores platelets where red blood cells come to die
* store breakdown products of red blood cells
* In the fetus, the spleen produces red blood cells
* Function = site of lymphocyte proliferation & response
-macrophages remove foreign material from the blood
- produces erythrocytes in the fetus
* surrounded by fibrous capsule extending inward as trabeculae.
Contains = Red blood cells, macrophages, lymphocytes
Areas with primarily lymphocytes = white pulp
Red pulp= primarily red blood cells (RBCs)
*Capsule of spleen is thin
When the spleen capsule ruptures, massive bleeding occurs and blood flows into the peritoneum
-If the spleen is damaged and taken out the liver takes over its job (function)

223
Q

Thymus

A

bilobed organ extending from the inferior neck to the superior thorax. Secretes hormones thymosin & thymopoietin
* causes T lymphocytes to become immunocompetent(mature) and ready to recognize antigen.
* older adults have fewer T cells due to thymus decreasing in size as we mature.
* thymus has lobules, each with a cortex & medulla
* most cells in cortex = lymphocytes with few macrophages
* medulla = fewer lymphocytes with Hassall’s or thymic corpuscles

224
Q

Tonsils

A

(2)Pair of palatine tonsils = posterior end of the palatine cavity
* (2) Lingual tonsils = found in base of tongue
* pharyngeal tonsil = posterior wall of the nasopharynx (when inflamed it is called adenoids)
* tubal tonsils= found near the tympanic membrane
* follicles with germinal centers. Not fully encapsulated, & epithelium dips down into the interior to form tonsils crypts (where bacteria is collected.

225
Q

Peyer’s patches

A

found in the distal small intestine & appendix projection of the first part of the large intestine

226
Q

MALT = mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue =

A

in the mucosa of all organs

227
Q

D. Groups of lymphoid follicles

A
  • Peyer’s patches
  • MALT
  • Tonsils
  • Peyer’s Patches
  • Appendix
  • Genital & urinary organs
228
Q

Immunity

A

The ability to fight off diseases infections and resistance to bacteria

229
Q

Defense systems

A

A. Nonspecific =
* 1st line of defense = physical barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes
* 2nd line of defense = phagocytes cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins.
Specific defense =
* 3rd line of defense adaptive specific acts against specific pathogens

230
Q

Skin and Mucosae

A

1st line of defense (innate system) intact skin, respiratory system open so lined with mucous membrane
* skin PH = 3-5 = inhibits bacterial growth due to acidity
* good effective barrier due to keratin (protein)
* hard for pathogens to reach
* stomach mucosa = hydrochloric acid , protein digestive enzymes = kills bacteria
* saliva & lacrimal fluid = contain lysozyme that kills pathogens (lines the eyes )
* mucus in digestive & respiratory passages

231
Q

When are nonspecific defenses present?

A

At birth

232
Q

2nd line of defense

A

microbes are recognized by their surface carbohydrates
A. Phagocytes especially macrophages
- free macrophages = alveolar macrophages → dust cells (moves around freely)
- fixed macrophages = sits and waits for something to pass by
- neutrophils- macrophages
- eosinophils
* phagocyte engulfs foreign body & encloses it in a vacuole-phagosome (brings to cells )
* phagosome + lysosome = phagolysosome
* cell must recognize the pathogen’s carbohydrate in order for adherence ( to stick ) to happen.
* adherence is more probable if pathogen is coated with complement proteins Or antibodies by a process called opsonization (all macrophages must be attracted to pathogen to eat it )
* if pathogens are too large to phagocytize, the cell releases toxic chemicals to get of pathogens
B. NK cells can lyse & kill bacteria, virally infected cells & cancer cells,
* troll through system constantly to find something to destroy = immune surveillance
* not specific like other lymphocytes & are not phagocytes

233
Q

A tissue’s response to injury

A

*inflammation
* Benefits of inflammation = limits to where pathogens can spread, to get rid of pathogens & help the body heal

234
Q

4 cardinal signs of acute inflammation

A

erythema (redness), localized heat, edema (swelling),& pain

235
Q

Inflammation begins with a release of inflammatory chemicals

A
  • macrophages release cytokines (inflammatory chemicals)
  • mast cells release histamine
  • other chemicals released = kinds, prostaglandins, leukotrienes & complement (causes
  • increased capillary permeability, which cause edema (swelling) which pushing on nerve cells that causes pain)
236
Q

After inflammation begins

A

more cells invade, especially neutrophils
* If inflammation was because of pathogens a group of plasma proteins called complement will be activated
* Bone marrow begins to release WBCs at a rapid rate
* leukocytosis occurs
* WBCs will stick to the capillary walls near the sites of inflammation = margination
* diapedesis (leaving area) & positive chemotaxis occur
* neutrophils release cytokines

237
Q

Pus

A

dead or dying neutrophils, damaged tissue cells & possible living & dead pathogens

238
Q

Abscess

A

Walls off pus so it doesn’t spread anywhere else

239
Q

interferons (IFNS)

A

interfere with viral replication
* made by virally infected cells, which travels to healthy cells which causes it to make antiviral proteins
* make sure virus never replicates
* can activate macrophages & NK cells
* IFNs = family of proteins that are released from a variety of cells.
* lymphocytes secrete GAMA interferons
* most other lymphocytes secrete Alpha interferons
* fibroblasts secrete Beta interferons

240
Q

Antimicrobial proteins

A

attack microbes directly or inhibit their ability to reproduce including interferons & complement proteins

241
Q

Complement proteins

A

a group of plasma proteins that circulate in the blood in an inactive state. Includes proteins C1 - C9, & factors D, B, & P (proparitin)
* Functions = destroy foreign substances, release chemicals that destroy cells, can lyse bacteria and other cells
* complements/ enhances all other areas of specific & nonspecific

242
Q

Classical pathway

A

Involves antibodies produced by the specific system (C1) complement fixation

243
Q

Alternative or properdin pathway

A

factor B, D, and P recognize polysaccharides in bacteria and C3 activated

244
Q

Lectin Pathway

A

the protein MLB (mannose-binding ) lectin binds to carbohydrates on bacteria thereby activating C3

245
Q

Complement can be activated by 3 pathways

A
  • classical pathway
  • complement fixation
  • alternative or properdin pathway
  • cascade system where one protein activates another until a common pathway is reached
  • All pathways end when C3 is converted to the active C3b, and a common pathway begins
  • All common pathways cause cell lysis, enhance phagocytosis & enhance inflammation
246
Q

Lysis

A

destroy cells, and C3b attaches to the target. This triggers C5 - C9 to form a MAC (membrane attack complex). This puts holes in the target membrane ( attacks membrane)

247
Q

Phagocytosis

A

C3b coats the microbes. This allows for greater recognition by macrophages & neutrophils for phagocytosis = opsonization
C3b enhances phagocytosis

248
Q

Inflammation

A

(localized) complement proteins stimulate mast cells & basophils to release histamine
* C proteins attract more neutrophils & macrophages

249
Q

2 branches of specific system

A

T cell-mediated, B cell-mediated (humoral)

249
Q

Fever

A

abnormally high body temperature that is a systemic response to microbes
* thermostat of the body = hypothalamus keeps body at 37.2° C
* pyrogens = chemicals secreted by Leukocytes & macrophages when exposed to foreign substances (set the hypothalamus up and cause fever)
* high fevers = denature proteins in the body due to too high temperature (dangerous)
* mild or moderate fevers = normal

250
Q

Specific Defense (adaptive)

A
  • specific = acts against specific pathogens /antigens
  • systemic = throughout the entire body not localized
  • has memory = once it reacts to one antigen next time it remembers and knows how to fight it.
251
Q

Humoral or Ab (antibody) mediated immunity (B cell)

A

antibodies bring to bacteria viruses; and bacterial toxins and hold until destroyed
* cannot get into the side cell it can only stick to the outside of the cell.

252
Q

Cellular or cell-mediated immunity (T cell)

A

virally infected, parasitic infections, cancer cells, and foreign
* acts against what is inside of cell

253
Q

Antigens

A

substances that can invoke an immune response

254
Q

Complete Antigens

A

must have immunogenicity or reactivity

255
Q

Immunogenicity

A

be able to provoke an immune response

256
Q

Reactivity

A

reacts to T cells and B cells

257
Q

Incomplete antigens or haptens

A

small molecules are not usually antigenic. But in combination with the body’s proteins, specific immune systems may see them as foreign & attack. These rxns = hypersensitivities. The small molecules

258
Q

Only certain parts of antigen are immunogenic = Antigenic Determinants

A

Where antibodies will bind (only a specific type of pathogen that is recognized by the body)

259
Q

Self-antigens

A

(Red blood cell) antigens that the body recognizes

260
Q

MHC

A

A group of self-antigens are glycoproteins called MHC proteins or HLAs (human leukocyte antigens).
They are coded by genes of the MHC (major histocompatibility complex)
* 2 major groups of MHC proteins:
- class I MHC = found in all nucleated cells (not found in RBCs or platelets)
- class II MHC = found in lymphocytes & APCs (antigen-presenting cells)

261
Q

Class I MHC

A

found in all nucleated cells (not found in RBCs or platelets)

262
Q

Class II MHC

A

found in lymphocytes & APCs (antigen-presenting cells)

263
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Must be immunocompetent (must be able to recognize antigens), and must the self tolerant (recognizes self antigens & doesn’t attack them

264
Q

Where do T cells mature?

A

the thymus

265
Q

Where do B cells mature?

A

The bone marrow

266
Q

When do B cells and T cells mature?

A

Until T & B cells come into contact with an antigen, they are not mature
* after maturation, T & B cells develop unique receptors on their membranes

267
Q

Antigen challenge

A

1st encounter between lymphocyte & an antigen
Recognized by B cell

268
Q

APCs engulf

A

APCs engulf (phagocytosis) antigens & present fragments of them on their cell surfaces to attract T cells
* Cells that at as APCs = dendritic cells like Langerhans’ cells of the epidermis,& macrophages

269
Q

B cell + antigen = activated B cell

A
  • activated B cell + interactions with T cells becomes sensitized and clonal selection = B cell grows & multiplies fast to form clones of itself
  • most cells of the clone = plasma cells = make antibodies
  • secretes 100 million antibodies nonstop every hour for 4-5 days
  • marks them for destruction
  • other cells of the clone = memory cells
  • inactivated cells that sits in body for the rest of your life and when the same antigens is reintroduced it fights it off faster.
270
Q

primary immune response

A

Approximately 3-6 days for the B cells to bind, multiply & differentiate into plasma cells. Antibodies levels rise & peak in about 10 days & then decrease

271
Q

Secondary immune response (Much more effective)

A

happens on any subsequent exposure to the same antigen = faster, more prolonged & more effective (due to memory cells)

272
Q

Immunological memory

A

reaction to antigen starts immediately & antibodies are released

273
Q

Active immunity is naturally acquired

A

spread from person to person (occurs naturally)
Such as chickenpox or measles

273
Q

B cells + antigen = antibodies

A

active humoral immunity (the pathogen presents antibodies made by memory cells)

274
Q

Active immunity is induced or artificially acquired

A

vaccine = make memory cells

275
Q

Passive humoral immunity

A

antibodies are given to individual

276
Q

Passive immunity is naturally acquired

A

when you get it as a fetus (passed down from mother to baby) (first immunity until body makes its own)

277
Q

Passive immunity is artificially acquired or induced

A

given antibodies such as antivenom for snake bites or tetanus shot

Anatomy and Physiology II (1 decks)

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