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Human Physiology > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

How much fluid do you have in the body?

A

42 Litres

  • 14 Litres outside cells
  • 28 Litres inside cells of which 2.5 litres is RBC Volume
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2
Q

What is the role of blood and circulation? 4 points

A
  • Transports nutrients to tissues
  • Transports waste products away from tissues
  • Carries hormones from one part of the body to another
  • Maintains an appropriate environment in all the tissue fluids for optimal cell function
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3
Q

What is the total volume of blood in a healthy adult?

A

5.5 Litres

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4
Q

What are the proportions of the components of blood?

A
  • Plasma (3 Litres - 55%)
  • Formed Elements (2.5 Litres - 45%)

Formed elements consist of RBC (approx. 45%), WBC and Platelets (less than 1%)

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5
Q

What is the haematocrit?

A

A sample of fresh blood with anti-coagulant spun in a centrifuge for 10minutes at 2000rpm to seperate the features of blood.
The haematocrit is the percentage of blood that is made up of cells

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6
Q

How does the normal haematocrit vary between genders?

A

In males it is between 42% - 52%

In females it is between 37% - 47%

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7
Q

What happens if the haematocrit falls outside of the normal values?

A

Anaemia - Haematocrit of less than 35%
Polycythaemia - Haematocrit of greater than 70%
(more viscous blood)
Dehydration - Haematocrit of 70% but a large drop in plasma volume

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8
Q

How does anaemia occur?

A
  • Blood loss (haemorrhage)

- Haemolytic Disease (sickle cell disease)

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9
Q

How does polycythaemia occur?

A
  • Living at high altitude

- Bone marrow tumours

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10
Q

What are the components of Plasma?

A
  • Water 90%
  • Proteins (8% of weight)
  • Albumin (maintain osmotic pressure)
  • Globulins (Clotting proteins and antibodies)
  • Fibrinogen (clotting)
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11
Q

What gets transported in plasma?

A
  • Nitrogenous waste products
  • Organic nutrients
  • Electrolytes (Cations, Anions & Respiratory Gases)
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12
Q

Where do all the cells in blood come from?

A

They all originate from haematopoietic stem cells

This branches into Myeloid Stem Cells and Lymphoid Stem Cells

Myeloid Stem Cells can differentiate into Platelets, Macrophages and Erythrocyte

Lymphoid Stem Cells can differentiate into Lymphocytes

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13
Q

How many red blood cells are there in a ml of blood?

A

5 Billion RBCs

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14
Q

What shape are RBC and how does that benefit the cell?

A

Biconcave disk

  • Large Surface Area
  • Favours diffusion
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15
Q

What are the diameter and thickness of a RBC?

A

Diameter = 8micrometres

Thickness = 2micrometres

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16
Q

What are some characteristics of capillaries?

A
  • Capillaries are narrower than RBC diameter so erythrocyte membrane has to be highly flexible
  • 99% of blood vessels in the body are capillaries
  • Capillaries only hold 5% of the blood in your body
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17
Q

What can the effects of osmosis have on RBCs?

A

If too much water enters the cell it becomes Hypotonic and loses shape (more spherical)
If the cell loses too much water it becomes hypertonic (cell collapses but cytoskeleton remains intact

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18
Q

How many RBC in there in a microlitre?

A

5 million

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19
Q

How many molecules of haemoglobin are on each erythrocyte? And how many oxygen molecules does that make it?

A

250 million per cell

1 billion oxygen molecules (because each haemoglobin binds to 4 oxygen)

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20
Q

How is it obvious to spot if someone has undergone large amounts of blood loss?

A

Their RBC’s will have a nucleus as they haven’t had the time to mature properly (can also detect if someone is doping in same way)

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21
Q

Negative effects of having no nucleus?

A 
No cell repair
No cell growth
No division
No energy generation
-RBC only survive 120 days but can travel up to 700 miles
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22
Q

How many RBC’s in an average adult circulation?

A

25-30 trillion

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23
Q

Where are the different types of bone marrow found?

A

Red marrow is found in the sternum, ribs and long limb bones (Red marrow can synthesise RBC known as haematopoiesis)
Every other bone has yellow marrow which doesn’t produce RBC

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24
Q

How is the production of red cells maintained?

A

Erythrocytes are broken down in the spleen in Heme+Globin
(Eventually forms bile from bilirubin and is excreted in faeces or urine)
-Can also form T-iron which is returned to the bone marrow

-EPO’s are released by the kidneys if the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is too low (EPO’s are used this way in doping)

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25
Q

Where does erythropoietin work?

A

Rate of division is increased in cells that have been produced by the stem cells
- no direct increase to stem cells

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26
Q

How much of total oxygen in blood is carried in RBCs?

A

98.5%

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27
Q

How do RBCs interact with CO2?

A

Reversible reaction

-Enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase converts CO2 and H20 into Carbonic Acid reversibly to be carried out in circulation

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28
Q

RBC’s interaction with Carbon Monoxide?

A

-Carbon Monoxide with actively displace Oxygen when binding to haemoglobin (240times more likely)

29
Q

RBC’s interaction with Nitric Oxide?

A
  • Nitric Oxide binds to haemoglobin in the lungs which acts as a vasodilator (Relaxes and Dilates arterioles)
  • Allows more blood to circulate and helps maintain blood pressure in small amounts
30
Q

What is the total amount of iron in the body? how much is in haemoglobin?

A

4g

-65% in haemoglobin

31
Q

What is a class 1 haemorrhage?

A

Where the body loses up to 15% blood volume
(Blood donors lose between 8-10% Blood volume)

-No medication necessary

32
Q

What is a class 2 haemorrhage? How is it treated?

A
  • Between 15-30% blood loss
  • Increase in heart rate
  • Systolic and diastolic blood pressure variance decreases
  • Peripheral vasoconstriction so skin looks pale and cold

-Give someone saline solution to increase blood volume

33
Q

What is a Class 3 haemorrhage? How is it treated?

A

30-40% Blood volume loss

  • Blood pressure drops
  • Heart rate increases
  • Brain function decreases due to lack of oxygen to the brain

-Treat by increasing volume (saline) and a blood transfusion

34
Q

What is a class 4 haemorrhage? How is it treated?

A

Greater than 40% blood volume lost
-Body can no longer compensate

-Aggressive resuscitation required

35
Q

How does haemostasis (the stopping of blood flow) occur?

A

-Three steps

1) Vascular spasm (vessel constricting to reduce flow)
2) Platelet plug (thrombus) to plug the leak
3) Formation of a blood clot

36
Q

What is the vascular spasm? How does it occur?

A

Intrinsic mechanism triggers a constriction which increases resistance to blood flow.
The damage also activates the sympathetic nervous system which triggers further vasoconstriction
-ONLY MINIMISES BLOOD FLOW DOESN’T STOP IT

37
Q

How many platelets per micrometre?

A

250,000

38
Q

What are platelets?

A

Colourless cell fragments that break off from megakaryocytes

39
Q

Characteristics of platelets (Thrombocytes)?

A
  • Smaller than erythrocytes

- Contain mitochondria, smooth ER and cyoplasmic granules (no nucleus)

40
Q

How is a platelet plug formed?

A

von Willibrand factor (vWf) is secreted by megakaryocytes and platelets.

  • upon damage, vWf binds to exposed collagen
  • Platelets then bind to vWf creating stickiness
  • Platelets then secrete Serotonin (vasoconstrictor), Epinephrine and ADP(used to promote platelet aggression)
41
Q

How is clot formation halted so the vessel isn’t completelt blocked?

A
  • Prostacyclin
  • Nitric Acid

Both released by healthy endothelium to stop the platelet plug from growing too large on healthy endothelium

42
Q

How is a blood clot formed?

A
  • Fibrinogen is needed to form the clot
  • Platelet plug is needed to form so a clot can be made as is requires activated platelets and the products made by the platelets (both stages can occur at the same time though
  • The whole of the clot is triggered by the COAGULATION CASCADE
43
Q

What is the coagulation cascade?

A

A large number of reactions that all cascade and cause cross linked fibrin to be caused for blood clotting

Involves the intrinsic (inside a blood vessel) and extrinsic (outside a blood vessel) pathways which become linked together towards the end of the cascade

44
Q

How is a blood clot removed?

A

Activation of Factor XII initiates the cascade of reactions to from a blood clot, but also begins the slow dissolution of the clot

45
Q

What prevents circulation being entirely clotted?

A
  • Inhibition of platelet adhesion
  • Inhibition of coagulation cascade and fibrin production when no clot is needed to be formed.
  • Endothelial cells release anticoagulants (Heparin and Antithrombin III)
46
Q

Name and explain how some anticoagulant drugs work?

A
  • Coumarin anticoagulants (warfarin) block the action of vitamin K
  • Ca2+ removal from plasma (EDTA)
  • Aspirin prevents platelet plug formation as it inhibits enzymes that from Thromboxane A2
47
Q

How can coagulation disorders be caused?

A
  • Liver disease
  • Vitamin K deficiency
  • Haemophilia
  • Low blood platelets
48
Q

What is the role of the immune system?

A
  • Protects the body from pathogens and foreign molecules such as:
  • parasites
  • bacteria
  • viruses
  • Removes dead or damaged cells
  • Attempts to recognise abnormal cells
49
Q

What are the two immune defences called?

A
  • Innate

- Acquired

50
Q

What tissues are involved in the lymph? Primary and secondary

A

Primary

  • Bone marrow
  • Thymus

Secondary

  • Lymph nodes
  • Spleen
  • Lymph vessels
  • Diffuse tissues
51
Q

What is innate immunity? Types of innate immunity?

A

Bodys non-specific response to invasion

  • Physical and chemical barriers
  • Phagocytosis (use of oxonin as a detector cell
  • inflammatory response
52
Q

What are the macrophages role in phagocytosis?

A

They show antigens of the broken down cell so it can be identified

53
Q

What are natural killer cells?

A

-Cells that eliminate virus-infected and tumour cells by secreting interferons (alpha and beta) to prevent viral replication. Also secretes interferon gamma which helps to activate other immune cells such as macrophages

54
Q

What is the role of the inflammatory response?

A
  • Attracts immune cells and chemical mediators to site of infection
  • Produces a physical barrier to prevent infection spreading
  • Promotes tissue repair
55
Q

What molecules are involved in the inflammatory response?

A

Histamines -swelling, vasodilation
Interleukins - fever, blood vessels more permeable to WBC
Bradykinin - pain and swelling
Complement cascade (membrane attack complex)

56
Q

What does the membrane attack complex do?

A

Complement proteins insert themselves into membranes of pathogens to create a pore. Water then flows in causing the cell to swell up and lyse

57
Q

What is acquired immunity?

A

The body’s specific immune response which is directed and specific invaders

58
Q

What are naive B-Lymphocytes?

A

WBC that contain one antibody complimentary to the antigens present on the pathogen.

59
Q

What happens during clonal expansion?

A

The naive lymphocyte begins reproducing plasma cells and memory cells to fight off the infection.

Memory cells are used in the secondary response

60
Q

What are the five different classes of antibodies?

A 
IgG-Activate complement cascade
IgA-Disable pathogens before entering internal environment
IgE-Associated with allergic response
IgM-Activate complement cascade
IgD-Unclear physiological role
61
Q

What is opsosins?

A

Things that can bind to pathogens and make them discoverable for phagocytosis

62
Q

What is the role of T Lymphocytes?

A

Will bind to any cell to test if it has been seen before.

If it hasn’t been seen before then there is a problem and primary response begins

63
Q

What is the major histocompatibility complex?

A

The way of working out if a cell is self or foreign. Carried out by T Lymphocytes

64
Q

What are the different MHC’s and where can they be found?

A

MHC Class 1 - All nucleated cells (scanned by cytotoxic T cells which will destroy it)

MHC Class 2 - present on macrophages/ B Lymphocytes and Dendritic cells (scanned by Helper T Cells which will produce more antibodies to aid with the response)

65
Q

What does the thymus do?

A

Create Cytotoxic T Cells and Helper T Cells from a T-Cell Precursor

66
Q

What happens to allergic responses?

A

First exposure

  • sensitiztion
  • Activation, clone B cells, form antibodies and memory cells

Re-exposure
-Many antibodies formed, large inflammation

67
Q

How does the rejection of blood occur?

A

Introducing the wrong blood type into the body will cause the presence of antibodies that will react to the opposing blood type causing the similar blood cells to be agglutinated

68
Q

What is rhesus factor?

A

Transmembrane proteins that can cause rejections like blood transfusions.

Can cause problems if mother and child are diffeent resus factors as fetal blood becomes agglutinated by maternal antibodies

Human Physiology (29 decks)

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