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Physiology 208 > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Blood

A
  • ## a connective tissue composed of cellular elements suspended in an extensive fluid matrix that circulates in the CV system
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2
Q

Composition of Blood

A
  • plasma
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3
Q

Composition of Plasma

A
  • water (92%)
  • ion
  • organic molecules
  • trace elements and vitamins
  • gases
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4
Q

Composition of Organic Molecules

A
  • amino acids
  • proteins (7%)
  • glucose
  • lipids
  • nitrogenous waste
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5
Q

Gases in Blood

A
  • CO2 and O2
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6
Q

Plasma Proteins

A
  • primary difference between plasma and the interstitial fluid
  • Albumins
  • Globulins
  • Fibrinogen
  • Transferrin
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7
Q

Albumins

A
  • multiple types
  • source = liver
  • major contributors to colloid osmotic pressure of plasma
  • carriers for various substances
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8
Q

Globulins

A
  • multiple types
  • source = liver and lymphoid tissue
  • clotting factors, enzymes, antibodies, carriers for various substances
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9
Q

Fibrinogen

A
  • source = liver

- forms fibrin threads essential to blood clotting

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10
Q

Transferrin

A
  • source = liver and other tissues

- iron transport

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11
Q

Cellular Elements

A
  • Erythrocyte
  • Leukocytes
  • Thrombocytes
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12
Q

Leukocytes

A 
- white blood cells
Types
1. lymphocytes
2. monocytes (macrophage)
3. neutrophils 
4. eosinophils
5. basophils (mast cell)
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13
Q

Hematocrit

A
  • 40-45%

- the fraction of the total column occupied by RBC’s

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14
Q

Buffy Coat

A
  • is WBC’s and platelets

- 1%

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15
Q

Plasma

A
  • 55-60%

- pale white solution of electrolytes, plasma proteins, carbohydrates and lipids

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16
Q

Hematopoiesis

A
  • production of blood cells
  • lineage development guided by cytokines (cell signalling molecules)
  • begins with pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell
  • bone marrow
  • in adults: pelvis, spine, ribs, cranium and proximal ends of long bones
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17
Q

Bone Marrow

A
  • hidden within the bones of the skeleton

- consists of blood cells in different stages of development and supporting tissue known as stroma (mattress)

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18
Q

Cytokines

A
  • proteins or peptides released from one cell that affect growth of activity in another cell
  • cytokines involved in Hematopoiesis
    1. Erythropoietin (EPO)
    2. Thrombopoietin (TPO)
    3. Leukopoiesis
    4. Colony-stimulating factors (CSF), interleukins, stem cell factor
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19
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A
  • RBC production
  • sites of production in kidney cells primarily
  • stimulated by low O2
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20
Q

Thrombopoietin (TPO)

A
  • produced in liver primarily
  • influences growth or differentiation of megakaryocytic (platelets)
  • thrombocyte (platelet) production (TPO)
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21
Q

Leukopoiesis

A
  • Leukocyte (WBC) production (CSF’s)
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22
Q

Colony-Stimulating Factors (CSF)

A
  • produced in endothelium and fibroblasts of bone marrow, leukocytes
  • influences growth or differentiation of all types of blood cells; mobilizes hematopoietic stem cells
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23
Q

RBC’s Erythrocytes

A
  • non-nucleated biconcave cells with diameter ~7.5um
  • distinctive shape increases surface to volume ratio
  • most abundant cell type in blood
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24
Q

Tasks of RBC’s

A
  1. carrying O2 from the lungs to the systemic tissue
  2. carrying CO2 from the tissues to the lungs
  3. assisting in the buffering of acids and bases
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25
Q

Shape of RBC’s

A
  • allows them to squeeze through capillaries
  • respond to osmotic changes
  • provide evidence of disease
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26
Q

RBC’s in Hypertonic Solution

A
  • cell shrink, but rigid cytoskeleton remains intact
  • spiky surface
  • cells are crenated
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27
Q

RBC’s in Hypotonic Solution

A
  • cell swells and lose their characteristic biconcave disk shape
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28
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • RBC’s mainly consist of hemoglobin
  • the O2 transport protein
  • each are composed of 4 protein global chains
  • each entered around a heme group
  • 2 alpha and 2 beta chains
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29
Q

Globin Proteins

A
  • alpha, beta, gamma, delta
30
Q

Heme Group

A
  • each group consists of a porphyrin ring with an iron atom in the centre
  • each group can bind one O2 molecule
  • 70% of iron in body found here
31
Q

Hemoglobin and Iron Process

A
  1. Fe ingested from diet
  2. Fe absorbed by active transport
  3. transferrin protein transports Fe in plasma
  4. bone marrow uses Fe to make Hb as part of RBC synthesis
  5. RBCs live about 120 days in the blood
  6. spleen destroys old RBCs and converts Hb to bilirubin
  7. bilirubin and metabolites are excreted in urine and feces
  8. liver metabolizes bilirubin and excretes it in bile
  9. livers stores excess Fe as ferritin
32
Q

Hemoglobin Synthesis

A

requires iron

33
Q

WBC’s (Leukocytes)

A
  • defend against infection
  • grouped into two major groups
    1. Granulocytes
    2. Non-granule containing lymphocytes and monocytes
34
Q

Granulocytes

A
  • contain cytoplasmic granules visualized under microscope
  • brief lifespan in the blood <12 hours, but if activated can migrate into tissues for longer time
  • types: neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil
35
Q

Neutrophil

A
  • most abundant leukocyte, contain granules with lysosomal enzymes capable of digesting foreign material (phagocytosis)
36
Q

Eosinophil

A
  • granules contain Major Basic Protein (MBP) which is toxic to parasites and other enzymes
  • important in response to virus’ and in allergic reactions
37
Q

Basophil

A
  • least common granulocyte, granules contain histamine, heparin and peroxidase and play a role in allergic reactions
38
Q

Non-Granule

A
  • Lymphocytes

- Monocytes

39
Q

Lymphocytes

A
  • two types
    1. T-lymphocytes (T-cells)
    2. B-lymphocytes (B-cells)
40
Q

T-Cells

A
  • 70-80% of all lymphocytes
  • responsible for cell mediated immunity
  • doesn’t involve antibodies
  • Tmem, Treg, Thelp, Tnk…
41
Q

B-Cells

A
  • responsible for humoral immunity, make antibodies to antigens
  • Bmem, Breg…
42
Q

Monocytes

A
  • spend life in peripheral tissues developing into macrophages
  • purposes of macrophages
    1. phagocytosis of pathogens or cellular debris
    2. present antigens to lymphocytes
43
Q

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

A
  • nucleus-free fragments
  • 2-3um in diameter in their inactive state
  • a single megakaryocytic can produce 1000s of platelets
  • 140-400000 platelets per 1ul of blood
  • contain two special types of granules (dense core granules and alpha-granules)
  • essential for hemostasis
44
Q

Dense Core Granules

A
  • contain ATP, ADP, serotonin, and Ca2+
45
Q

Alpha-Granules

A
  • store von Willebrand factor, platelet firbrinogen, and clotting factor V
46
Q

Megakaryocytes

A
  • giant cells with multiple copies of DNA in the nucleus
47
Q

Platelets Formation

A
  • edge of megakaryocyte break off to form cell fragments (platelets)
48
Q

Hemostasis

A
  • the prevention of hemorrhage (bleeding) is achieved through a 3 step process
49
Q

Hemostasis Process

A
  1. Vasoconstriction
  2. Platelets Plus Formation
  3. Coagulation
50
Q

Vasoconstriction

A
  • contributes to hemostasis by closing the vessel and preventing blood flow to the damaged region
  • can be triggered by direct injury to vascular smooth muscle, the release of paracrine signals from damaged endothelial cells (edothelin) or platelets (serotonin, thromboxane A2)
  • bring down pressure in vessel so secure mechanical seal can be applied in form of clot
51
Q

Platelet Plug Formation

A
  • inactivated platelets do not adhere to themselves or to the intact endothelium cells that line the vessel (both: neg. charge)
  • platelets contain cell surface receptors (integrins)
  • damage triggers platelet formation where collagen is exposed
52
Q

Platelet Plug Formation Process

A
  1. Exposed collagen binds and activates platelets
  2. Release of platelet factors
  3. Factors attract more platelets
  4. Platelets aggregate into platelet plug
53
Q

What causes platelets to bind?

A
  • a breach of the endothelium

- it exposes interns to collagen, fibronectin and laminin

54
Q

Subendothelial Layer

A
  • collagen, fibronectin and laminin
55
Q

What does the binding of interns cause?

A
  • activation of an intracellular signalling pathway in platelets
  • causes them to release the contents of their granules
56
Q

What is contained in Granules

A
  • serotonin (vasoconstrictor)
  • ADP
  • Platelet-activating factor (PAF activates more platelets
57
Q

PAF signals platelets to…

A

release thromboxane A2 (vasoconstrictor)

58
Q

Intact Endothelial Cells

A
  • release substances to prevent activated platelets from binding
59
Q

What causes platelets to recruit to site and aggregate?

A
  • ADP, serotonin, thromboxane A2
60
Q

Von Willebrand Factors

A
  • causes platelets to form molecular bridges between one another
61
Q

Coagulation (Coagulation Cascade)

A
  • a fibrin protein mesh stabilizes the platelets plug into a clot
  • clot is a semisolid mass of platelets and fibrin with RBC’s, WBC’s and serum entrapped within
  • being with 2 pathways of activation that converge
62
Q

Intrinsic Pathway

A
  • surface contact pathway
  • factor XII is activated when contacting exposed collagen, activated platelets
  • final product = factor Xa
63
Q

Proteolysis

A
  • breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids
64
Q

Extrinsic Pathway

A
  • cell injury pathway
  • factor VII (tissue factor) leaves vessel binds to tissue factor receptor and becomes factor VIIa
  • final product = factor Xa
65
Q

Common Pathway

A
  • factor Xa from intrinsic and extrinsic is used to create thrombin which ultimately converts fibrinogen to a stable fibrin clot
66
Q

Hemophilia

A
  • where one of the factors in the coagulation cascade is defective or lacking
  • bruise easily, spontaneous bleeding
  • bleeding in joints and muscles can be painful and disabling
  • can be fatal
  • treated with synthetic factors
  • AAV treatment
67
Q

Hemophilia A

A
  • factor VII deficiency

- most common

68
Q

Hemophilia B

A
  • factor IX deficiency
69
Q

Why is too much coagulation bad?

A
  • can because a stroke, heart attack, pulmonary embolism
70
Q

Anticoagulant Factors

A
  • produced by healthy endothelial cells
  • interfere with the clotting cascade
  • Prostacyclin and NO: prevent platelet binding
  • TFPI
  • Antithrombin III
  • Thrombomodulin
  • Protein S and C
71
Q

Fibrinolysis

A
  • breakdown of blood clots
72
Q

Fibrinolysis Process

A
  1. conversion of plasminogen to plasmin (proteolysis)
  2. endothelial cells produce tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) that cause this conversion
  3. plasmin is capable of breaking down both stable fibrin and fibrinogen

Physiology 208 (11 decks)

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