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Physiology > Blood 1 > Flashcards

Blood 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of blood?

A

to transport materials between cells and the external environment

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2
Q

Components of blood

A

Plasma, erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), platelets

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3
Q

Average blood volume

A

5 litres in women

5.5 litres in men

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4
Q

What are the three types of specialized cellular elements suspended in the plasma (liquid portion of blood)

A

Erythrocytes (RBC, important in oxygen transport)

Leukocytes (white blood cells, immune system’s mobile defence unit)

Platelets (cell fragments, important for homeostasis)

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5
Q

Blood composition

A

See figure

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6
Q

Function of plasma

A

to carry and distribute various molecules around the body

to absorb and distribute heat

to transport proteins

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7
Q

Components of plasma

A

Water (~90%) - transport medium

Electrolytes (Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, K+, Ca2+) - Membrane excitability; osmotic distribution between ECF and ICF; buffer pH changes

Nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins)

Gases (CO2) - important for acid-base balance

hormones

wastes (urea, creatinine)

plasma proteins

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8
Q

Protein composition in plasma

A

Compose 6% to 8% of plasma’s total weight

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9
Q

Function of plasma proteins

A

maintain osmotic pressure in capillaries
to avoid fluid loss (general)

act as buffers to maintain blood pH (general)

assist transport of water insoluble compounds

blood clotting factors

protection

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10
Q

Three groups of plasma proteins

A

Albumins

Globulins

Fibrinogen

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11
Q

Which plasma proteins contribute most to colloid osmotic pressure?

A

Albumins

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12
Q

Three subclasses of globulins

A

Alpha (a)

Beta (b)

Gamma (g)

Clotting factors (alpha, beta) and immune defence (gamma)

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13
Q

Role of fibrinogen

A

Key factor in blood clotting

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14
Q

Function of erythrocytes

A

To transport oxygen (5 billion cells/ml)

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15
Q

Cellular content of RBC

A

No nucleus, organelles or ribosomes

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16
Q

Function of biconcave disc structure of RBC

A

Provides larger surface area for diffusion of O2 across the membrane

Thinness of cell enables O2 to diffuse rapidly between the exterior and innermost regions of the cell

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17
Q

Function of flexible membrane of erythrocytes

A

Allows RBCs to travel through narrow capillaries without rupturing in the process

8 mm diameter can squeeze through 3 mm capillaries !

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18
Q

Erythrocytic enzymes

A

Glycolytic enzymes

Carbonic anhydrase

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19
Q

Function of erythrocyte glycolytic enzymes

A

Necessary for generating energy needed to fuel active transport mechanisms involved in maintaining proper ionic concentrations within cell

Rely on glycolysis for ATP formation

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20
Q

Function of erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase

A

Critical in CO2 transport

Catalyzes reaction that leads to conversion of metabolically produced CO2 into bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

Primary form in which CO2 is transported in blood

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21
Q

Where is hemoglobin found?

A

Only in RBCs

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22
Q

What is hemoglobin? What does its colour indicate?

A

Pigment containing iron

Appears reddish when oxygenated

Appears bluish when deoxygenated

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23
Q

Two parts of hemoglobin

A

Globin (protein composed of 4 highly folded polypeptide chains)

Heme (Four iron-containing nonprotein groups, each is bound to one of the polypeptides)

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24
Q

What molecules other than oxygen does Hb combine with

A

Carbon dioxide

Acidic hydrogen-ion portion (H+) of ionized carbonic acid

Carbon monoxide (binds stronger than O2)

Nitric oxide

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25
Q

What does lead poisoning cause?

A

Blocks heme synthesis

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26
Q

What is porphyria?

A

group of different disorders caused by defects in biosynthetic pathway for heme

Photosensitive

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27
Q

What is thalassemia

A

defective globin synthesis, causes anemia

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28
Q

Forms of thalassemia

A

alpha, beta or delta

Most common genetic disorder

Many forms: Mediteranean, india, burma, southeast asia

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29
Q

What happens in Methemoglobinemia?

A

Iron is present in oxidized Fe3+ rather than the usual Fe2+ state

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30
Q

Cause of Methemoglobinemia?

A

Hereditary, pharmaceuticals, environmental agents

Causes blue baby syndrome

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31
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

RBC production

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32
Q

Survival rate of RBCs

A

About 120 days

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33
Q

What removes the old erythrocytes from circulation?

A

Spleen

Must be replaced at rate of 2 million to 3 million cells/second

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34
Q

Where does erythropoiesis occur?

A

Bone marrow

Pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow differentiate into the different types of blood cells

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35
Q

Control of erythropoiesis

A

Kidneys detect reduced O2-carrying capacity of blood

Kidneys secrete erythropoietin into blood

Erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis (RBC production) in bone marrow

More RBC, leads to more O2-carrying capacity of blood

Erythropoietin production relieved

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36
Q

What is hematocrit (Act)

A

The number of erythrocytes in blood expressed as a percent of total blood volume

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37
Q

How is hematocrit measured?

A

Centrifuge heparinized blood in glass centrifuge tube (capillary)

Packed erythrocytes will be at bottom

Measure visually

HCT = (volume of RBC/volume of blood) x 100

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38
Q

What are the normal ranges for hematocrit?

A

dependent on age and, after adolescence, the sex of the individual.

Newborns: 55-68%
One (1) week of age: 47-65%
One (1) month of age: 37-49%
Three (3) months of age: 30-36%
One (1) year of age: 29-41%
Ten (10) years of age: 36-40%
Adult males: 41-53%
Adult women: 36-46%
39
Q

Why do newborns have high hematocrit?

A

Cells dividing at exponential rate, cells need energy, energy generation needs oxygen. Newborns have reduced lung capacity, so gas exhange is important

40
Q

What is anemia?

A

Refers to a below-normal O2-carrying capacity of the blood

Characterized by low hematocrit (<35%)

Other associated symptoms: Tachycardia (heart pumps more vigorously), Pallor (blood shunted away from skin to other tissues), Exertional dyspnea (lungs and heart struggle to keep up supply)

41
Q

Causes of anemia

A

Nutritional anemia (Dietary deficiency in iron, folic acid, vitamin B12)

Pernicious anemia (Loss of hematopoietic cells – viruses, drugs, autoimmune (loss of intrinsic factor req for B12 absorption

Aplastic anemia (Bone marrow malfunction – radiation, metastases, toxic chemicals)

Renal anemia (Kidney failure, leads to decreased EPO)

Hemorrhagic anemia (Acute (bleeding), Chronic (menstrual))

Hemolytic anemia (Malaria, sickle cell)

42
Q

What are megaloblastic anemias?

A

Inhibition of DNA synthesis in RBC production

Usually due to deficiency in vitamin B12 or folic acid.

Pathology: Immature RBC in bone marrow

43
Q

What is polycythemia?

A

Characterized by too many circulating RBCs and elevated hematocrit

Primary and secondary

44
Q

Primary polycythemia (Cause, results)

A

Hct > 70%

Caused by tumorlike condition of bone marrow

Erythropoiesis proceeds at uncontrolled rate

Resulting increase in blood viscosity, which increases cardiac load and peripheral resistance (producing high BP) reduce O2 delivery

45
Q

Secondary polycythemia (Cause, results)

A

Erythropoietin-induced adaptive mechanism to improve blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity in response to prolonged reduced oxygen delivery to the tissues

Occurs normally in people living at high altitudes

46
Q

How can dehydration lead to polycythemia?

A

loss of fluid due to decreased water intake or excessive water loss results in elevated hematocrit

there is no change in erythrocyte number, just a decrease in blood plasma component

Sometimes called relative polycythemia

47
Q

Hematocrit under various conditions

A

See figure

48
Q

What is MCV?

A

Mean corpuscular volume

Average volume of red cells

MCV = (hematocrit (%) x 10 RBC) /count (millions/ml blood)

49
Q

What are normal and abnormal values of MCV?

A

Normal range: 80-95 fL

Within normal range: normocytic

Lower than normal: microcytic

Higher than normal: macrocytic

50
Q

MCHC

A

mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

MCHC = (hemoglobin (g/100 ml) x 100) / hematocrit (%)

51
Q

Normal and abnormal ranges of MCHC

A

Normal range: 30-34 g Hb/100 ml

Within normal range: normochromic

Lower than normal: hypochromic

Higher than normal: hyperchromic

52
Q

What is malaria caused by?

A

caused by protozoan parasite that gets into the red blood cells and multiplies

cells rupture; rapid development of anemia

body respond with a fever

If untreated = death

53
Q

Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

A

enzyme catalyzes an oxidation/reduction reaction to generate NADPH

red blood cells lyse under oxidative stress

during attack: irregularly contracted cells, bite cells, blister cells, Heinz bodies, reticulocytosis

54
Q

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (Caused by, how to test for)

A

Increased RBC destruction due to RBC autoantibodies

Positive direct antiglobulin (Coombs’) test

Warm (IgG) – Ab attach best at 37oC

Cold (IgM) – Ab attach best at < 37oC

55
Q

Anemia of chronic diseases

A

Decreased release of iron from the bone marrow to the developing erythroblast

inadequate erythropoietin response to anemia

Decreased cell survival

56
Q

Classification of anemia

A

See figure

57
Q

Hemopoiesis

A

See figure

58
Q

Other word for leukocytes

A

White blood cells

WBC

59
Q

What are leukocytes?

A

Mobile units of body’s immune defense system

Circulate within blood but exit through the vessel wall in regions of tissue damage (physical or infectious)

60
Q

Functions of immune system

A

Recognizes and destroys or neutralizes materials within body that are foreign to “normal self”

Defends against invading pathogens

Identifies and destroys cancer cells that arise in body

Functions as a “cleanup crew” that removes worn-out cells and tissue debris

61
Q

Color of leukocytes?

A

Colorless

Lack hemoglobin

62
Q

Size of leukocytes compared to erythrocytes

A

Somewhat larger

63
Q

Amount of leukocytes vs erythrocytes

A

1 leukocyte per 700 erythrocytes

64
Q

Different types of circulating leukocytes

A

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils

Monocytes

Lymphocytes

65
Q

Where do leukocytes originate from?

A

from same undifferentiated multipotent stem cells in red bone marrow

66
Q

Where are granulocytes and monocytes produced?

A

only in bone marrow

67
Q

What are most new lymphocytes produced by?

A

by lymphocytes already in lymphoid tissues such as lymph nodes and tonsils

68
Q

What does the total number of WBC and percentage of each type depend on?

A

Changing defence needs

69
Q

What are the polymorphonuclear granulocytes

A

Have many-shaped nucleus, granulated containing

Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils

70
Q

Granules of neutrophils and dyes

A

neutral and show no dye preference

71
Q

Granules of eosinophils and dyes

A

granules have an affinity for the red dye eosin

72
Q

Granules of basophils and dye

A

Granules have an affinity for a basic blue dye

73
Q

What are the mononuclear agranulocytes

A

Single-nucleus cells lacking granules

Monocytes

Lymphocytes

74
Q

Distinguishing feature of monocytes

A

Oval or kidney shaped nucleus

75
Q

Distinguishing feature of lymphocytes

A

Smallest of the leukocytes; usually have large spherical nucleus that occupies most of the cell

76
Q

What are neutrophils best at

A

Phagocytic specialists

77
Q

How to neutrophils carry out their role?

A

Release web of extracellular fibers called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that contain bacteria-killing chemicals

Can also destroy bacteria by phagocytosis

78
Q

Functions of neutrophils

A

First defenders on scene of bacterial invasion

Very important in inflammatory responses

Scavenge to clean up debris

79
Q

What is an increase in circulating eosinophils associated with?

A

Allergic conditions such as asthma and hay fever

Internal parasite infestations, such as worms (attach to worm and secrete substances to kill it)

80
Q

What is the most poorly understood leukocyte?

A

Basophils

Most numerous

81
Q

What are basophils similar to (structurally and functionally)?

A

Mas cells

82
Q

What do Basophils synthesize and store?

A

Histamine

Heparin

83
Q

When is histamine released?

A

Allergic reactions

84
Q

Role of heparin

A

Speeds up removal of fat particles from blood after fatty meal

Can also prevent clotting of blood samples drawn for chemical analysis

Used extensively as anticoagulant drug

85
Q

Emergence of monocytes

A

Emerge from bone marrow while still immature and circulate for day or two before settling down in various tissues in body

Mature and enlarge in resident tissue and become known as macrophages

86
Q

Lifespan of monocytes/macrophages

A

can range from several months to years

87
Q

What is the general role of lymphocytes?

A

Provide immune defense against targets for which they are specifically programmed

88
Q

Lifespan of lymphocytes

A

100 to 300 days

89
Q

What are the two types of lymphocytes?

A

B lymphocytes

T lymphocytes

90
Q

Role of B lymphocytes

A

Produce antibodies

Responsible to antibody-mediated or humoral immunity

91
Q

Role of T lymphocytes

A

Do not produce antibodies

Directly destroy specific target cells by releasing chemicals that punch holes in the victim cell (cell-mediated immunity)

Target cells include body cells invaded by viruses and cancer cells

92
Q

Infectious mononucleosis

A

infection by Epstein-Barr virus that elevates circulating lymphocytes

93
Q

Leukemia

A

cancer that is characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of leukocytes

94
Q

Immunosuppression

A

caused by contact with radiation or chemicals that reduce bone marrow capacity to produce leukocytes;

ability of body to defend against infection is compromised

Physiology (19 decks)

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