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213- pharmacology > block D - CNS > Flashcards

block D - CNS Flashcards

1
Q

what are the functions of the CNS?

A

they’re the primary unit of integration
- help to keep the body environment constant (homeostasis),
- helps with the bodies perception (sight, taste, smell and hearing),
- movement and coordination, intellect and emotions

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2
Q

what are the cellular components of the CNS?

A

neurons, glia and blood supply

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3
Q

what are glia?

A

theyre cells that are ‘others’
helper cells

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4
Q

what are myelinated axon bundles?

A

they wrap the cell body to protect it

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5
Q

what are astrocytes?

A

they connect with neurons and blood cells
they keep the junctions between endothelial cells tight in central arterioles
they also make sure that nothing that’s not allowed into the arterioles get in

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6
Q

what are olgiodendrocytes?

A

theyre myelin sheaths in the CNS
they help to more effectively transmit electrical impulses

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7
Q

what are microglia?

A

theyre cells like phagocytes and scavengers

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8
Q

what are ependymal cells?

A

they’re line ventricles, spinal canal and CSF circulation

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9
Q

what are the major subdivisions of the brain?

A

forebrain
midbrain
hindbrain

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10
Q

what are the two main parts of the forebrain and what do they consist of?

A

outer- cerebrum, corpus striatum and hippocampus
inner- thalamus and hypothalamus

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11
Q

what sections make up the midbrian?

A

basal ganglia including substantia nigra

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12
Q

what parts make up the hindbrain?

A

cerebellum, medulla oblongata, pons and reticular formation

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13
Q

why is the brain wrinkled?

A

it increases surface area

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14
Q

what is the hippocampus important for?

A

memories and emotions

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15
Q

what is grey matter made of?

A

cell bodies

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16
Q

what is white matter made up of?

A

its made up of mostly cell axons

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17
Q

what are the 4 lobes of the outer forebrain?

A

frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe

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18
Q

what does the central sulcus help to do?

A

it helps us discriminate different parts of the brain

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19
Q

what is the occipital lobe important for?

A

vision

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20
Q

what is the corpus striatum?

A

its part of basal ganglia and it coordinates body movements

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21
Q

what system is the hippocampus part of? and what is it important for?

A

limbic system and its important in pleasure, hostility, anger and instincts, its also involved in memory

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22
Q

what does the thalamus do?

A

it is the relay center and receives all sensory input, which gives it to the cerebrum and relays cerebrum motor output to other areas

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23
Q

what does the hypothalamus do?

A

it regulated autonomic and endocrine systems
these are essential for hunger, thurst, osmotic balance, body temperature and metabolic rate

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24
Q

what is the subratntia nigra?

A

its part of the basal ganglia and coordinates body movements

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25
Q

what does the hindbrain do?

A

it is a continuation of the spinal cord and has acending and decending nerves from the forebrain, its in control of veceral refelexes like heart rate, digestion and breathing

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26
Q

what happens if the hindbrain is damaged?

A

DEATH

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27
Q

what is the brain stem reticulum formation?

A

its within the brainstem and it modulates levels of wakefulness and sleep

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28
Q

what is the 2nd biggest structure in the brain?

A

the cerebellum

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29
Q

what does the cerebellum control?

A

fine coordinated movemets

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30
Q

what is the spinal cord surrounded by?

A

ascending and decending nerve tracts

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31
Q

what is the Ventral root?

A

motor/efferent nerves leaVing cord and innerVate effectors (innervate = supply)

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32
Q

what is the dorsal root?

A

its sensory and efferent nerves entering the cord

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33
Q

what is the dorsal root ganglion?

A

its a cluster of nerves coming out of the dorsal root
the nerves are sensory nerve cell bodies

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34
Q

what is the blood brain barrier between?

A

it is between the blood vessels and cerebral ventricles, these are around the brain and brainstem
and between the blood vessels and the interstitial fluid adjacent to neurons

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35
Q

what is the CSF-ISF interface?

A

its where there is some movement of fluid because of a permeable interface between the cerebrospinal fluid and the interstitial fluid (between the brain and the spinal cord)

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36
Q

what does the fluid which is separate from the blood do?

A

supplies metabolites
physically protects the brain
provides appropriate chemical environment for neuronal function
removes waste

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37
Q

how much of your energy does your brain burn?

A

1/5

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38
Q

how does the CNS get energy?

A

it relies on blood glucose and O2 supply to function, it receives 15% of all the blood pumped by the heart and 20% of the body’s total O2 usage

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39
Q

what is the difference between a central areteriole and a peripheral arteriole?

A

central arterioles have astrocytes to keep them together so nothing unwanted can get into them as they go up to the brain buit peripheral arterioles dont have these astrocytes to keep them together so theyve got tiny pores that allow things into them

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40
Q

what are the structural specialisations of central arterioles?

A
  • tight junctions between endothelial cells
  • astorcytes - 2nd barrier
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41
Q

what do central arterioles let into them and what do they stop from getting in?

A

they allow small ionised lipid-soluble compounds like O2, CO2 and hormones, they also allow in substrates for specific transporters e.g. glucose, essential amino acids and ions
they block the entry of proteins, substances bound to plasma proteins, toxins, pathogens and most drugs

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42
Q

what does BBB stand for?

A

Blood-Brain Barrier

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43
Q

what causes injury and inflammation like meningitus?

A

BBB breakdown and when the CNS is exposed to harmful substances

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44
Q

what does the cerebrospinal fluid fill?

A

4 chambers
2x layteral, 3rd and 4th ventricles and spinal cord canal

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45
Q

what is the point of cerebral spinal fulid?

A

it cushions the brain and spinal cord from physical forces and it aids the removal of waste to the venous system

46
Q

can cerebral spinal fluid flow anywhere it wants to in the brain?

A

no, it follows a specific path through the brain and it only flows in one direction
it flows from ventricles to surround brain and spinal cord and a small amount goes into the spinal cord canal and then exits through one-way valves to veins

47
Q

how is cerebral spinal fluid produced?

A

by choroid plexus (ependymal cells + capillary bed)
it produces ~20ml CSF/hr for physical support and buffer
the ependymal cells actively secrete Na+ into ventricle and Cl- follows passively, this increases the osmotoc pressure which drives into venticle

48
Q

what does the cerebral spinal fluid carry?

A

glucose transporters have low efficiency so CSF glucose is about 66% of blood glucose and it has less K+ than blood (a net reverse transport of K+)

49
Q

what are chemical messengers?

A

theyre general properties of neurotransmission and you get non-peptide ones and peptide ones

50
Q

what are non-peptide neurotransmitters involved in?

A

they’re involved of synthesis, storage, release, mimicry, antagonists and inactivation
they’re also involved in pathways and are the main CNS types

51
Q

what are the structural properties of neurotransmitters?

A

they have a presynaptic axon, post-synaptoc cell body and post-synaptic recpetors

52
Q

what does calcium do at the synapse?

A

it activates and changes some of the vesicles and then they fuse and dump out neurotransmitter into the synapse for it to then bind to the post synaptic membrane

53
Q

what are examples of monoamines?

A

noradrenaline,
dopamine,
5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT/ serotonin),
histamine

54
Q

what are some examples of amino acid non-peptide neurotransmitters?

A

GABA, glutamate and glycine

55
Q

what are some other non-peptide neurotransmitters?

A

acetylcholine, ATP and nitric oxide

56
Q

what is the criteria for identification of a neurotransmitter? (theres 6)

A
  1. synthesised within the neuron
  2. stored in nerve terminal
  3. released by nerve stimulation in Ca2+ dependant manner
  4. specific mechanisms exist for inactivation
  5. exogenously applied substances mimic endogenous response to neurotransmitter
  6. antagonist inhibits both neurotransmitter and exogenously applied substance
57
Q

what are the steps of dopamine as a neurotransmitter?

A
  1. its synthesised within the neuron
  2. its stored in the nerve terminal
  3. its released by nerve stimulation in Ca2+ - dependant matter
  4. specific mechanisms
  5. mimicry
  6. inhibition by antagonist
58
Q

what happens to dopamine after its caused a spike of neurotransmitter?

A

its rapidly degraded, if its not you would just be hyper all the time

59
Q

what happens in ‘mimicry’ of dopamine as a neurotransmitter?

A

cAMP is measures in straitum after nerve stimulation or adding dopamine

60
Q

how is noradrenaline distributed in the brain?

A

its distributed from the brain stem to the cortex, then to the libic system, cerebellum and brain stem

61
Q

what are the physiological functions of noradrenaline?

A

its part of the reward system and mood, state of arousal (alertedness) and blood pressure regulation

62
Q

how is dopamine distributed in the brain?

A

SN to basal ganglia then to VTA to limbic system and cortical forebrain hypothalamus and then finally to pituritary

63
Q

what are the physiological functions of dopamine?

A

motor control
reward system
mood
motivation
prolactin secretion

64
Q

how is 5-HT distruibuted around the brain?

A

from brain stem to cortex to limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebellum

65
Q

what are the physiological functions of 5-HT?

A

sleep
wakefulness
temperature regulation
mood

66
Q

what is the physiological functions of acetylcholine and how is it distributed?

A

arousal, learning and motor control
distribution - long and short projections from basal forebrain, interneurons in basal ganglia

67
Q

how is glutamate distributed in the brain and that are the physiological functions of it?

A

functions- memory, epilepsy, relay of sensory information
distribution - widespread, mainly present as interneurons

68
Q

how is GABA distributed in the brain and that are the physiological functions of it?

A

functions-epilepsy and anxiety
distribution - widespread, mainly present as interneurons

69
Q

how is glycine distributed in the brain and that are the physiological functions of it?

A

distribution - spinal cord interneurons, modulates NMDA receptors
function- epilepsy (not all forms)

70
Q

what are neuropeptides?

A

they’re 5->30 amino acids
they have many different function’s from classical neurotransmitters

71
Q

what are the similarities between classical neurotransmitters and neuropeptides?

A
  • stored in vesicles, in specific regions
  • Ca2+ dependant release
  • effect > 2nd messengers / change in ion channel activity`
72
Q

what are the differences between neuropeptides Vs classical neurotransmitters ?

A
  • synthesised in cell body, part of large precursor protein
  • transported to terminal
  • processed to active peptide
  • released at lower concentrations
  • mechanism of inactivation unclear
  • removed slowly from synaptic cleft
  • longer action
73
Q

what what is involved in indirect, slow neurotransmission?

A

its via G-proteins and cytoplasmic 2nd messengers

74
Q

what are some examples of ligands of GCPR?

A

dopamine, NA, 5HT, aCh- musccarenic, clutamate metatrophic

75
Q

how fast is ‘slow neurotransmission’?

A

secs to mins

76
Q

how fast is ‘fast neurotransmission’?

A

10’s of miliseconds

77
Q

what is direct, fast neurotransmisson via?

A

receptor-operated ion channels

78
Q

what are some examples of receptor-operated ion channels?

A

nicotinic ACh receptors
glumate ionotropic receptors
P2X receptors

79
Q

what causes inhibitory post-synaptoc potential (IPSP) and what causes exitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)?

A

IPSP- Cl-
EPSP-Na+ and K+

80
Q

if theres not enough stimulation to hit the neurotransmission threshold, what happens?

A

nothing. it just fizzles out and doesnt lead to anything

81
Q

how do pre-synaptic inhibition by fast neurotransmitters work?

A

the inhibitory neuron is the one affecting the pre-synaptic synapse

82
Q

what senses are sensed by the sensory reception?

A

vision
somatic sensory/ touch
gustatory / taste
olfaction / smell
auditory / hearing
balance /movement propricoception

83
Q

why is sensory reception important?

A

it maintains homeostasis
detects and reacts to changes in environment
protects the body from noxious (damaging) stimuli

84
Q

what are the different types of sensory receptors?

A
  1. cuteneous receptors - touch, pressure, temperature and pain
  2. proprioceptors - body position
  3. special senses- sight, hearign, taste and smell
85
Q

what do sensory afferent nerves sense?

A

they only sense their own one specific stimulus

86
Q

what do free nerve endings sense?

A

pain and temperature

87
Q

do the same receptors sense hot and cold?

A

no, theres 2 different neurons that are sensitive to the different temperatures

88
Q

how does skin sense pressure?

A

theres is lots of different nerve endings to sense different pressures and theyre all covered in connective tissue layers

89
Q

what are some names of nerve endings that detect touch?

A

merkel’s disk
meissner’s corpuscle
Ruffini’s ending

90
Q

what happens if the stimulus strength is: sub-threshold; moderate; strong?

A

sub-thershold- no action potentials are produced
moderate - a few action potentials are generated
strong- lots of action potentials are generated

91
Q

what happens if there’s a strong continuous signal created?

A

they start ignoring the information sent because they’ve already detected it and created a response

92
Q

give examples of 1st, 2nd and 3rd order neurons?

A

1st - goes from the stimulus to the spinal cord
2nd- goes from spinal cord to thalamus
3rd - goes from thalamus to cortex

93
Q

do 2 signals coming from the same place to the same place have to follow the same pathway?

A

no, there can be 2 different pathways for the same pathway

94
Q

what does the dorsal column system palthway transmit signals for?

A

fine touch
pressure
propriception

95
Q

what does the spinothalamic system transmit signals for?

A

pain
temperature
coarse touch

96
Q

what does decussation mean?

A

it means pathways that have to cross to the other side of the brain- thus sensory info is processed on the other side of the brain

97
Q

where do the signals continuously sensed go to in the brain?

A

they go to the post centural gyrus

98
Q

what are the two types of nociceptor fibres and what do they sense?

A

Aδ- these sense fast, sharp pain myelinated
C fibres- slow, dull aching pain unmyelinated

99
Q

what are the characteristics of thermoreceptors?

A

theyre activated by extreme temperatures (>45 degrees, <15 degrees) theyre found at Aδ fibresq

100
Q

what are the characteristics of mechanireceptors?

A

theyre activated by intense pressure and are found at Aδ fibres

101
Q

what are the characteristics of polymodal nociceptors?

A

theyre activated by high intensity mechanical, chemical and thermal (both hot and cold) stimuli

102
Q

what is referred pain?

A

its pain perceived to come form one part of the body but it actually comes from another part

103
Q

how does spinal cord modulation of pain carried by C fibres?

A

interneurons that release enkaphalins on either descending stimuli from CNS or localised 5HT to activate pre- and post-synaptic opiate receptors at spinal sensory synapse; GPCRs coupled to Gi leading to decreased cAMP, reduced PKA activity, modulation of K+ conductance thus decreasing neuronal excitability

its part of the spinothalamic pathway

104
Q

what is the gate control theory of pain?

A

its where theres a dampening down of the pain signals and the C fibre can turn off the neurons so strong signals dont go to the thalamus

105
Q

how is pain carried by Aδ fibres modulated?

A

Aδ fibres synapse in different area of spinal cord
No interneurons that release enkephalins
No opiate receptors  morphine ineffective
Sharp pain harder to treat

106
Q

how is the sense of pain different for everyone?

A

the more your exposed to continuous stress, the less you may feel pain
its modulated by previous experiences

107
Q

what are some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and what do they do?

A

they block COX-1 and COX-2 which block inflammation
- aspirin, ibuprofen

108
Q

what does lidocane block?

A

the generation of action potentials

109
Q

how do local anasthetics work?

A

they’re injected locally and block Voltage-dependant Na+ channels to block action potentials

110
Q

how do opiods treat pain?

A

they bypass the primary nociceptive afferent pathway and inhibits discharge of 1 degree

213- pharmacology (5 decks)

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