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Pathology > Block 9 > Flashcards

Block 9 Flashcards

1
Q

Epidemiology is

A

Where and when a disease takes place. Looks at the number of people affected

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2
Q

Etiology is

A

The underlying cause

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3
Q

Pathogenesis is

A

The disease process

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4
Q

Pathology is

A

The study of disease, especially changes in tissues/cells

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5
Q

Idiopathic

A

Unknown cause

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6
Q

Iatrogenic

A

Caused by medical professional or medical procedure

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7
Q

Nosocomial

A

Infection acquired from hospital

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8
Q

Diagnosis

A

Describe the patients disease based on signs and symptoms and tests

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9
Q

Signs

A

Objective evidence, you see it in the office i.e BP, vomiting

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10
Q

Symptoms

A

Subjective evidence, the patient reports them

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11
Q

What are some extrinsic factors

A

Biological
Chemical
Physical
Nutritional

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12
Q

What are som intrinsic factors

A

Genetic
Congenital
Immunological
Psychological

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13
Q

Acute

A

Rapid onset, short duration, not severe

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14
Q

Chronic

A

Lasts longer than 3 months

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15
Q

Subacute

A

Period between acute and chronic

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16
Q

What are the top 5 preventable killer diseases in the US

A
  1. Heart disease
  2. Cancer
  3. Stroke
  4. T2DM
  5. Obesity
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17
Q

Normal values are from this percent of the population

A

95%

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18
Q

Pathophysiology

A

Functional changes that accompany a particular disease or syndrome

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19
Q

We are able to cure/prevent _/10 preventable disease

A

7/10

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20
Q

Index case

A

First identified case in a group of related cases

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21
Q

Mortality

A

Death

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22
Q

Morbidity

A

Rate of having a disease

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23
Q

Epidemic

A

Abrupt and unexpected increase in the incidence of disease over endemic rates

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24
Q

Endemic

A

Disease that has relatively stable and expected incidence and prevalence within a certain geographical area

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25
Q

Pandemic

A

Spread of a disease beyond continental boundaries

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26
Q

Incidence

A

Number of new cases

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27
Q

Prevalence

A

Total number of cases

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28
Q

Horizontal transmission

A

Direct/indirect contact

This is the normal transmission of a disease

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29
Q

Vertical transmission

A

Form of direct transmission

From mother to fetus

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30
Q

Cross sectional study looks at

A

Data from population to assess frequency of diseases at particular time

Prevalence

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31
Q

Case control study looks at

A

Effect then cause

Compare sick and healthy people
Looks for prior exposure risks

Starts with the disease

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32
Q

Cohort study looks at

A

Cause then effect
Compares a group with a given exposure risk to a group without exposure

Starts with exposure

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33
Q

Positive predictive value equation

A

TP/ (TP+FP)

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34
Q

Negative predictive value equation

A

TN/ (TN+ FN)

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35
Q

Sensitivity

A

Likelihood that a stick person tests positive

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36
Q

Specificity

A

Likelihood that a healthy person test negative

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37
Q

Sensitivity equation

A

TP/ (TP+ FN)

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38
Q

Specificity equation

A

TN/ (TN+FP)

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39
Q

+- 1 SD represents this % of the population

A

68%

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40
Q

+-2 SD represents this % of population

A

95%

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41
Q

What are 3 factors that determine a normal range

A

Age
Gender
Location

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42
Q

What is normal FBG and HgA1c

A

<100 mg/dL

<5.7%

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43
Q

Pre-diabetes FBG and HgA1c

A

100-125 mg/dL

5.7-6.4%

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44
Q

Diabetes FBG DNA HgA1c

A

> 126 mg/dL

>6.5%

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45
Q

What 2 things diagnose diabetes

A

FBG >126

A random BG level of 200

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46
Q

ALT/AST look at

A

Liver damage

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47
Q

Bilirubin indicates

A

Liver failure

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48
Q

What is the best enzyme to monitor the liver

A

ALT

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49
Q

Where are ALT and AST found

A

Hepatocytes

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50
Q

Where is ALP found

A

Liver ducts

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51
Q

What system does a Comprehensive Metabolic Panel look at a Basic Metabolic Panel does not?

A

Liver

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52
Q

What are the cardiac biomarkers

A

Myoglobin
CPK
Troponin

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53
Q

What molecule is most indicative of heart attack or heart damage

A

Troponin

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54
Q

Total cholesterol norm

A

<200 mg/dL

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55
Q

HDL is _____ cholesterol

A

Good

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56
Q

HDL does this

A

Transports cholesterol to the liver

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57
Q

HDL norm

A

> 40

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58
Q

LDL is ___ cholesterol

A

Bad

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59
Q

LDL does this

A

Deposits cholesterol in vascular walls

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60
Q

LDL norm

A

<100

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61
Q

What is a test that is used to look at inflammation

A

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

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62
Q

What is the normal SED rate value

A

0-20 mm/hr

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63
Q

What clotting factors are Vit K dependent

A

2, 7, 9, 10

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64
Q

Warfarin inhibits what clotting factor

A

7

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65
Q

Heparin inhibits what clotting factor

A

2 and 10A

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66
Q

What test is used to monitor warfarin treatment

A

TP

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67
Q

What test is used to monitor Heparin treatment

A

PTT

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68
Q

Neutrophils indicate

A

Bacterial infection

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69
Q

Lymphocytes indicate

A

Viral infection

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70
Q

Eosinophils indicate

A

Allergies, parasitic infection

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71
Q

Anemia is

A

Low HGB and HCT

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72
Q

What is the normal hemoglobin for women

A

<12

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73
Q

What is the normal hemoglobin for males

A

<13.5

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74
Q

A HGB level of 7 or 10 indicates what treatment is needed

A

Transfusion and hospital

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75
Q

Microcytic anemia has a MCV value of

A

<80

76
Q

What is the most common form of anemia (microcytic)

A

Iron deficiency

77
Q

What is the MCV value for macrocytic anemia

A

> 110

78
Q

What is a form of macrocytic anemia

A

B12 deficiency

79
Q

What is the most common test to screen for syphillis

A

RPR

80
Q

What test is used to confirm syphillis

A

FTA/ABS

81
Q

What substances in the urine indicate a UTI

A

Leukocyte esterase
Blood
Nitrate
Proteins

82
Q

Glucose in the urine indicates

A

Diabetes

83
Q

Specific gravity of urine indicates

A

Hydration

84
Q

Bilirubin in urine indicates

A

Hepatic function

85
Q

T/F CT penetrate soft tissue

A

True

86
Q

Is CT or X-ray more sensitive

A

CT

87
Q

MRI uses this to make an image

A

Magnetic fields and radio waves

88
Q

T/F MRI can penetrate soft tissues

A

True

89
Q

Ultrasound uses this to make an image

A

Sound waves

90
Q

Nuclear imaging uses this to make an image

A

Radioactive material

91
Q

When are you concerned about fatigue?

A

When it is persistent

92
Q

When are you concenerned about weight loss?

A

When it is non-intentional

93
Q

What is chronic fatigue syndrome associated with

A

Epstein Barr Virus

94
Q

What is a high grade fever

A

Higher than 103 degrees F

95
Q

What is a moderate fever

A

102 F

96
Q

What is a low grade fever? How do you treat it?

A

Less than 101, you let it run the course

97
Q

What are pro inflammatory cytokines

A

IL1, and NFa

98
Q

What are anti-inflammatory cytokines

A

IL 4

99
Q

What are the criteria for FUO

A
  • Illness of 3 weeks
  • temp over 101 F
  • failure to diagnose after 3 outpatient visits
100
Q

What are the 3 most common causes of FUO

A

Infection
Neoplasms
Autoimmune

101
Q

What are criteria that ALWAYS indicate a serious headache etiology

A

Visual loss
Disequilibrium
Confusion/lethargy
New onset seizures

102
Q

Who do migraines affect

A

Young women (20-30 yo)

103
Q

What is the presentation of a migraine headache

A

Throbbing, pulsatile, unilateral, 4-72 hours

104
Q

Who do tension headaches affect

A

All ages and genders

105
Q

What is the presentation of a tension headache

A

Late in the day
Work week
Worse with stress (can precede a migraine)
Band like distribution

106
Q

Who do cluster headaches affect

A

Middle aged men (30-50 yo)

107
Q

What is the presentation of cluster headaches

A

Unilateral
Smokers/drinkers
1-2 attaches per day
Presents with red eyes and nasal stuffiness
May cause transient ipsilateral Horner’s syndrome

108
Q

Who do giant cell arteritis affect

A

Patients over 60

109
Q

What is giant cell arteritis

A

Inflammation of the medium and large arteries

May cause blindess

110
Q

Why should you give steroids for GCA?

A

To bring down the inflammation

111
Q

What does FAST mean for Stroke

A

Face: paralyzed?
Arms: can hold arms out parallel to ground
Speech: slurred?
Time: get them to the hospital

112
Q

What are some mechanisms of cell injury?

A

Free radical formation
Hypoxia and ATP depletion
Disruption of intracellular Ca homeostasis

Membrane damage

113
Q

How do free radicals damage our bodies?

A

Damage cell membranes

Damage nucleic acids

114
Q

Free radicals are key to multiple complications in this disease

A

Diabetes

115
Q

Fat soluble vitamins

A

D A K E

116
Q

What are the most toxic fat soluble vitamins?

A

A and D

117
Q

What is ATP depletion

A

<5-10% normal levels

118
Q

What affect does hypoxia and ATP depletion have on the cell

A

Na/K pump
Cell metabolism
Protein synthesis

119
Q

Any stress in the body produces what substance?

A

Lactic acid

120
Q

If you decrease Ca what are activated

A

ATPases
Phosphatases
Proteases
Endonucleases

121
Q

What are some things that cause membrane damage

A 
Increase cytosolic Ca
Loss of membrane phospholipids
Cytoskeleton damage
Reactive oxygen species
Lipid breakdown
122
Q

What are some reversible cell damages

A 
Atrophy
Hypertrophic
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Dysphasia
123
Q

What does -trophy mean?

A

Nourish

124
Q

What are irreversible cell damage responses

A

Cell death

125
Q

What is neoplasia?

Can it be reversed?

A

Cancer, it cannot be reversed?

126
Q

What is hyperplasia

A

Change in cell number

127
Q

What is metaplasia

A

Change in cell types

128
Q

What is dysphasia?

A

Abnormal cells

129
Q

What are atrophy and hypertrophy a change in

A

Change in cell size

130
Q

In Metaplasia you replace what?

A

A normal Mature cell type with a different mature cell type

131
Q

What cells are more likely to become cancer cells

A

Dysphasia

132
Q

What is atrophy

A

Shrinking in cell size

133
Q

What causes atrophy

A 
Lack of use/innervation
Low Blood supply
Bad nutrition 
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Again
Pressure
134
Q

What is a natural atrophy that happens in the body?

A

The thymus

Huge in children and smaller in adults

135
Q

What is hypertrophy

A

Increase in cell size, NOT number

136
Q

What are some things that cause hypertrophy

A

Increased functional demand
Body builders (muscle fibers)
Breasts in pregnancy
Heart (hypertension, faulty valves)

137
Q

What is hyperplasia

A

Increase in cell number

Usually results in increased tissue volume

138
Q

What are some examples of hyperplasia

A

Uterus and breast (pregnancy)
Connective tissue in wound healing

Benign prostatic hyperplasia

Skin warts

Gingival hyperplasia

139
Q

T/F metaplasia may transform into malignancy

A

True

140
Q

Is metaplasia reversible?

A

Yes

141
Q

What is dysplasia

A

Abnormal cell growth. Changes in size, shape, and organization

142
Q

Is dysplasia reversible?

A

It can be

143
Q

What is dysplasia strongly implicated as a precursor to ?

A

Cancer

144
Q

What are some endogenous products that accumulate intracellular lay

A

Normal body substances

Abnormal products from inside the body

145
Q

What are some exogenous products that can accumulate intracellularly

A

Environmental agents

Pigments

146
Q

What is bilirubin

A

An endogenous product

Product of hemoglobin metabolism

147
Q

What clears bilirubin

A

Liver

148
Q

What is hepatitis

A

Liver inflammation

149
Q

What are some symptoms of hepatitis?

A
  • Increased bilirubin
  • Jaundice/icterus in all body tissues
  • Protein production ceases
  • Can be Induced by acetaminophen
150
Q

What is argyria?

A

Cause by exogenous product

Cosmetic condition that is caused by prolonged ingestion of silver salts

Blue discoloration in the skin

151
Q

What is significant about calcifications

A

It is an abnormal deposition of calcium

Deposits in dead or dying tissue, causes organ dysfunction

152
Q

What is necrosis

A

Messy lysis of dead cells within living tissue

Huge inflammatory response

153
Q

What is apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death without inflammatory response

Cell shrinks, membrane blebs

154
Q

What is the process of necrosis

A
  1. Membrane damage
  2. Lysosomal enzymes leak into cytoplasm
  3. Cell and organelles swell
  4. Cellular components leak out of the cell
  5. Inflammatory response
155
Q

What are exudates and how are they formed

A

Necrosis produces inflammation, the inflamed vessels leak fluid and cells, very cloudy

156
Q

What is the protein content of exudates

A

High

>1020

157
Q

What are transudates and how are they formed

A

Fluid is pushed through capillary due to pressure.

Clear

158
Q

What is the protein content of transudate

A

Low

<1012

159
Q

What are the cells present in acute inflammation

A

Neutrophils
Mast cells
Platelets
Basophils

160
Q

What are the cells present in a Chronic inflammation

A

B/T lymphocytes
Macrophages
Plasma cells
Antibodies

161
Q

Look at slide 52

A

Apoptosis vs necrosis chart

162
Q

What are factors that affect aging

A

Genetics
Diet
Diseases
Werners syndrome

163
Q

What are the cellular mechanisms of aging

A
  • cross linked DNA and proteins
  • accumulation of toxic by-products
  • aging genes
  • Loss of repair mechanisms
  • telomere shortens
164
Q

What changes occur with again

A
  • Gradual atrophy of tissues and organs
  • dementia
  • loss of skin elasticity
  • CV damage
  • loss of lens elasticity
165
Q

What are som e factors that increase aging

A 
Steve
Infections
Diseases
Malnutrition 
Accidents
Toxins
166
Q

What are some factors that decreases aging

A

Decreased stress

Good health, nutrient, oral health, exercise

167
Q

What does an accumulation of copper cause

A

Kayser-Fleischer rings

168
Q

What are Kayser-Fleischer rings indicative of?

Is it treatable?

A

Wilson’s disease

Yes

169
Q

What enzyme is defective in Wilson’s disease

What are some side effects

A

Ceruloplasm

Psychiatric issues

170
Q

What layer of the cornea is affected by Wilson’s Disease

A

Descemet’s membrane

171
Q

T/F argyria is permanent

A

True

172
Q

What can calcium deposits cause?

A

Hard Knots in the body

Neck and heart

173
Q

What do sudden increases or decreases in atmospheric pressure cause?

A

Blast injuries
Decompression sickness
Caisson disease (bleeding eyes)

174
Q

Caissons is caused by what pressure movement?

A

High to low

175
Q

Necrosis is associated with what?

A

Inflammation

176
Q

T/F necrosis is bad for healing

A

True

177
Q

T/F apoptosis is bad for healin

A

False, it is a normal process

178
Q

T/F the cell membrane stays in tact until it is phagocytized in apoptosis?

A

True

179
Q

Apoptosis is beneficial

Necrosis is detrimental

A

Know this

180
Q

If you add dilute acetic acid solution to an unknown fluid and there is a lot of precipitate, what does this tell you?

What kind of fluid is this?

A

There is a lot of protein

It is an exudate

181
Q

Calor and dolor are often often associated with

A

Acute

182
Q

Granulomas are a sign of what kind of inflammation

A

Chronic

183
Q

What is a granuloma? What is it composed of?

A

It is dead material and active macrophages(epithelioid cells) at its center and surrounded by lymphocytes

184
Q

NEUTROPHILS: ________ inflammation

A

Acute

185
Q

MACROPHAGES (EPITHELIODS) AND LYMPHOCYTES: ______ inflammation

A

Chronic

186
Q

Apoptosis is very controlled

A

Yes

187
Q

What are telomeres?

A

They are the end cap of a chromosome that shorten every time a cell duplicates

Pathology (4 decks)

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