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A&P II > Block 3 - Endo > Flashcards

Block 3 - Endo Flashcards

1
Q

Mediators that are neurotransmitters and hormones

A

norepi , epi, oxytocin

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2
Q

two types of local hormones

A

paracrine / autocrine

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3
Q

where are lipid-soluble hormones synthesized?

A

liver

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4
Q

hormone secretion is controlled by

A

signals of nervous system and chemical changes

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5
Q

What hormone stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal coretex?

where is is secreted from?

A

ACTH

anterior pituitary

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6
Q

Define positive and negative feedback

A

positive-reinforces

negative-reverses

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7
Q

3 major groups of hormones

A

protein and peptides / steroid / tyrosine derivatives

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8
Q

hormones can be classified by

A

solubility / gland of secretion / function

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9
Q

majority of hormones in the body are

A

protein / polypeptides

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10
Q

protein / polypeptides have what type of solubility?

A

water-soluble

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11
Q

hGH and prolactin are what type of hormones

A

water soluble, PROTEIN hormones

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12
Q

thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) is what type of hormone

A

water soluble, POLYPEPTIDE hormone

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13
Q

What hormones are released from hypothalamus?

A

GHRH / GHIH / TRH / CRH / GRH

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14
Q

what hormones are released from the anterior pituitary gland?

A

hGH / TRH / ACTH / (FSH / LH) / prolactin

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15
Q

What hormones are released from the posterior pituitary gland?

A

ADH / oxytocin

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16
Q

what does TRH stimulate and what does it do

A

thyrotropin hormone and prolactin;

synthesis/secretion of thyroid hormones (prolactin: milk production)

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17
Q

what does CRH stimulate and what does it do

A

adrenocorticotropin hormone: syn / sec of adrenocortical steroids

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18
Q

what does GHRH / GHIH stimulate and what does it do

A

stimulates release of hGH and inhibits hGH (protein synthesis and growth of most cells)

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19
Q

what does GRH stimulate and what does it do

A

causes releases luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone

luteinizing: testosterone / estrogen and progesterone production
follicle stimulating: growth of follicles / maturation of sperm

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20
Q

somatotropin and somatostatin are what two hormones

A

GHRH / GHIH - released by hypothalamus

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21
Q

what hormone is secreted by the thyroid

A

calcitonin - promotes deposition of calcium into bones to DECREASE serum calcium levels

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22
Q

what hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands

A

parathyroid hormone; INCREASES calcium absorption by the guy and kidneys, break down bone matrix to increase serum calcium

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23
Q

hormones released by pancreas

A

insulin and glucagon
insulin-high glucose level to bring glucose in cells
glucagon-low glucose level

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24
Q

hormones released by plancentas

A

human chorionic gonadotropin hormone: growth of corpus luteum and secretion of estrogen and progesterone

human somatomammotropin - dev of fetal tissues; enlargement of mothers breasts

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25
Q

hormones of kidneys

A

renin: catalyzes conversion of angiotensinogen and angiotensin

EPO: increases RBC production

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26
Q

hormones of the heart

A

atrial-natriuretic hormone (ANP) increases sodium by kidneys, reduce blood pressure

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27
Q

hormones of the stomach

A

gastrin - HCl secretion by PARIETAL CELLS to aid digestion

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28
Q

hormones of small intestines

A

secretin: pancreas to bicarbonate
cholecystokinin: stimulates gallbladder contraction; release of pancreatic enzymes

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29
Q

hormones of the adipocytes

A

leptin: inhibits appetite, stimulates thermogenesis

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30
Q

steroid hormones are what soluble

A

lipid soluble

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31
Q

steroid hormones have to have what?

A

transport proteins

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32
Q

where do steroid hormones bind?

A

inside the cell

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33
Q

how much of a concentration of steroid hormone are stored?

A

little concentrations of these are stored

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34
Q

what steroid hormone is released by kidneys

A

calcitriol (1,25 dihydroxycholecaliferol): inc. intestinal absorption

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35
Q

what adrenal cortex hormones

A

cortisol: multiple functions-controlling metabolisms; anti-inflammatory
aldosterone: inc. renal sodium ABSORPTION and K/H ion secretion

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36
Q

what hormones are from testes

A

testosterone: promotes dev. of male repro system

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37
Q

what hormones are from ovaries

A

estrogen: promotes growth/dev of female repro syst, breasts, secondary characteristics
progesterone: helps to produce “uterine milk”-nourishes growing embryo; helps dev secretory apparatus of breasts

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38
Q

what are the tyrosine derivative hormone

A

T3/T4 ; adrenal medullary hormones (CATECHOLAMINES) ; dopamine

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39
Q

what is the prolactin inhibiting hormone

A

dopamine

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40
Q

what are the catecholamines

A

norepinephrine / epinephrine

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41
Q

what tyrosine hormones are released by hypothalamus

A

prolactin inhibiting hormone (DOPAMINE)

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42
Q

what tyrosine derivative hormones are water soluble / what are lipid soluble

A

Dopamine / Epinephrine / Norepinephrine (water soluble)

T3/T4 (lipid soluble-bound to transport proteins)

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43
Q

Which thyroid hormone is the active form

Which is the precursor

A

t3 is active / t4 is precursor

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44
Q

dopamine effects?

A

inhibits release of prolactin as hormone, also has function of NT

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45
Q

hypothalamus is connected to the _____ ______ by what?

A

posterior pituitary / infundibular stalk

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46
Q

what makes up the infundibulum

A

pars tuberalis / infundibular stalk

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47
Q

what makes up the anterior pituitary

A

pars tuberalis / intermedia / distalis

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48
Q

what makes up the posterior pituitary

A

infundibular stalk / pars nervosa

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49
Q

pituitary is located where

A

hypophyseal fossa in sella turcica of sphenoid bone

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50
Q

what regulates growth, development, metabolism, homeostasis

A

hypothalamus and pituitary gland

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51
Q

hypothalamus to anterior pituitary glands movement of hormones occurs thru

A

pituitary portal system (capillaries)

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52
Q

releasing hormones

A

GHRH / TRH / CRH / GnRH / PRH

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53
Q

inhibiting hormones

A

GHIH (somatostatin) / PIH (dopamine)

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54
Q

posterior pituitary gland hormones

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH / vasopressin)

oxytocin

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55
Q

pituitary gland is located

A

within the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

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56
Q

anterior pituitary gland AKA:

A

adenohypophysis or pas distalis

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57
Q

posterior pituitary gland AKA:

A

neurohypophysis or pars nervosa

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58
Q

anterior pituitary consists of

A

pars distalis and pars tuberalis (partially covers infundibulum (like a sheath))

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59
Q

type of hormones produced by anterior pituitary gland

A

TROPIC hormones

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60
Q

the only tropic hormone that doesn’t exert effect on another endocrine gland

A

hGH

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61
Q

anterior pituitary hormones are synthesized and released into what type of circulation

A

venous

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62
Q

how is hGH secreted

when does its secretion increase?

A

in pulsatile manner

deep sleep

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63
Q

main function of hGH

A

promote synth and secretion of Insulin-like growth factors

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64
Q

hGH effects cells from where

A

liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, bones synthesize

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65
Q

if deficiency in production of IGFs occur-what happens?

A

abnormalities - even if hGH is normal

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66
Q

what do IGFs do

A

inc protein synthesis
dec protein catabolism
enhances lipolysis (for ATP production)
stims growth

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67
Q

how does IGF influence carbohydrate metabolism

A

decreases glucose uptake to cells leaving it in the bloodstream for neuronal use; also stims liver to break down glycogen into glucose in hypoglycemic states

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68
Q

when is insulin secreted

when are IGFs secreted

A

in high blood glucose situations

in low blood glucose situations

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69
Q

how is hGH secretion affected by hypoglycemia

A

stimulates GHRH and inhibits GHIH by hypothalamus

hGH is secreted to increase IGFs which decreases glucose uptake and stims liver glycogenolysis

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70
Q

how does hyperglycemia affect hGH

A

stimulates hypothalamus to secrete GHIH

reduced levels of hGH and IGF
IGFs not needed because glucose is already present

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71
Q

factors that stimulate hGH

A

low blood sugar situations; deep sleep; dec serum fatty acids; inc serum amino acids

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72
Q

what hormones stimulate hGH secretion

A

testosterone / estrogen / Ghrelin (hormone right before meals)

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73
Q

factors that inhibit hGH

A

hyperglycemia / hGH itself (negative feedback)
GHIH (somatostatin)
when plasma T3/T4 levels are low

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74
Q

what is ACTH stimulated by

A

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamis

stress-related stimuli (low blood glucose / trauma)

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75
Q

what controls production of cortisol

A

ACTH

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76
Q

ACTH controls production for what

A

cortisol, other GLUCOCORTICOIDS and androgens produced by the cortex of the adrenal glands

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77
Q

what controls prolactin secretion

A

prolactin releasing and prolactin inhibiting hormone (dopamine)

78
Q

milk production and milk ejection is controlled by

A

prolactin and oxytocin

79
Q

prolactin is weak by itself but works with

A

estrogen, progesterone, glucocorticoids, hGH, T4 and insulin

80
Q

low levels of estrogen and progesterone just prior to menstruation are caused by

what do those low levels inhibit

A

prolactin

PIH (dopamine)

81
Q

what stimulates the secretion of FSH

A

GnRH to anterior pituitary

82
Q

what does FSH do in women and men

A

women: follicle production
men: sperm production

83
Q

what type of feedback is exhibited by FSH levels

A

negative feedback

84
Q

what stimulates the secretion of LH

A

GnRH to anterior pituitary

85
Q

what does LH trigger and form

A

ovulation and corpus luteum

86
Q

what is significant about the formation of corpus luteum

A

secretes progesterone

87
Q

what triggers the secretion of estrogen and where does it secrete from

A

FSH and LH; ovarian follicular cells

88
Q

what stimulates testosterone prod in males

89
Q

what is the collective name for group of peptide hormones produced in the skin, the anterior pituitary and other parts of the brain

A

melanocyte stimulating hormone

90
Q

where does dopamine (PIH) inhibit the release of MSH?

A

ANTERIOR PITUITARY ONLY

91
Q

melanocyte stimulating hormone can be found

A

skin, anterior pituitary and parts of brain

92
Q

melanocytes may suppress

93
Q

what inhibits TRH

A

increased levels of t3/t4 in blood stream

subsequently reduces TSH to reduce T3/T4 being made

94
Q

what composes the posterior pituitary

A

pars nervosa

infundibular stalk

95
Q

what hormones are stored in posterior pituitary

A

ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin

96
Q

what “stores” and “releases” but does not “synthesize”

A

posterior pituitary

97
Q

what inhibits ADH

A

alcohol - end up dehydrating yourself by “breaking the seal”

98
Q

how does ADH increase blood pressure?

A

vasoconstriction of arterioles

99
Q

what is osmotic pressure measured by

A

osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

100
Q

what effects the amount of ADH secreted?

A

blood osmotic pressure and blood volume

101
Q

what causes high osmotic pressure

A

dehydrate, hemorrhage, diarrhea, excessive sweating

loss of volume/fluid

102
Q

what is the pressure that solutes are causing inside the plasma?

A

osmotic pressure measured by osmoreceptors

103
Q

what do the osmosreceptors activate

A

production and release of ADH from neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus

104
Q

describe the signal pathway for releasing ADH

A

osmoreceptor sends signal to neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus –> hypothalamus sends signal to posterior pituitary by the neurosecretory to secrete the STORED ADH

105
Q

what are the ADH target tissues

A

kidneys (retain water) / sudoriferous (dec sweating) / vascular smooth muscle (arteriolar constriction)

106
Q

what alters ADH

A

pain / stress / trauma / anxiety / drugs

107
Q

what type of action is the release of oxytocin

A

positive feedback (oxytocin enhances oxytocin prod)

108
Q

what does oxytocin effect in women

A

uterine contraction / milk ejection

109
Q

what is needed for thyroid synthesis and secretion

A

presence of thyroid stimulating hormone

110
Q

what type of feedback causes the hypothalamus to stop/slow TRH production

A

negative feedback

111
Q

anything that increases cellular energy demand causes an increase in what?

A

t3 / t4 production

112
Q

what are the functional units of the thyroid

113
Q

what do follicular cells produce and what does it do

A

calcitonin - regulates blood calcium levels

114
Q

T3 / T4 do what to metabolic rates

115
Q

describe T3 / T4

A

t3 active form much less abundant but more potent

t4 inactive form much more abundant but less potent

116
Q

what produces thyroglobulin (TGB)

A

follicular cell

117
Q

where is TGB produced and packaged

A

ER / golgi apparatus / released by exocytosis in colloid

118
Q

Iodide requires what before it is useable

A

perioxidase oxidzses the iodide to iodine

119
Q

What forms with iodine and TGB

A

DIT and MIT

120
Q

what are T3 and T4 formed by

A

t3 = DIT and MIT ; t4 = MIT and MIT

121
Q

once T3/T4 are formed in colloid what occurs

A

colloid pulled back into follicular cell by pinocytosis

colloid engulfed by lysosome and digests TGB and cleaves off T3/T4

T3/T4 bind to thyroxine BINDING globulin (for water solubility) and are sent to target cells thru blood stream

122
Q

What are actions of T3 / T4

A

increase basal metabolic rate
stimulates synth of add. Na+ and K+ pumps
helps regulate metabolism
can enhance actions of catecholamines-upregulate beta adrenergic receptors (hyperthyroid patients experience inc heart rates and blood pressure)

123
Q

what hormones do T3/T4 work with to accelerate body growth

A

hGH and insulin

124
Q

what is the effect of calcitonin

A

high levels of serum calcium and HPO42 stimulate secretion

low levels inhibit

125
Q

describe resorption

A

process of using/losing substance (breakdown of bone by osteoclasts)

126
Q

describe absorption/reabsorption

A

process of gaining something

127
Q

how does calcitonin affect osteoblasts and osteoclasts

A

inhibits osteoclasts because theirs already enough calcium in the blood; increases osteoblasts to use calcium to build

128
Q

how does calcitonin affect the intestine and urine output

A

decreases calcium absorption in intestine since calcium levels are already high; increases calcium loss in the urine

129
Q

in particular, how are the kidneys affected by calcitonin

A

increases calcium loss in urine; prevents cells in the distal convoluted tubule from reabsorbing more calcium

130
Q

principal cells of parathyroid gland and what do they secrete

A

chief cells secrete PTH

131
Q

how does calcium effect PTH

A

high levels of calcium inhibit secretion

low levels of calcium stimulate secretion

132
Q

PTH effects osteoclasts and osteoblasts by

A

increase osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts

133
Q

what does PTH do in the intestines and kidneys

A

increases calcium absorption in intestine

stimulates cells in distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more calcium

134
Q

two distinct sections of the adrenal glands

A

adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla

135
Q

adrenal glands are covered by what and are supplied with blood how

A

connective tissue capsule

highly vascularized

136
Q

3 zones of adrenal gland

A

zona glomerulosa / fasciculata / reticularis

137
Q

what are the 3 zones and their hormones produced

A

zona glomerulosa: mineralcorticoids

fasciculata: glucocorticoids
reticularis: androgens

138
Q

describe zona glomerulosa

A

mineralcorticoids;
effects mineral homeostasis;
ALDOSTERONE: sec. in elevated K+/H+ levels and low BP
Release of aldosterone is FLUCTUATING
promotes reabsorption of Na+ and water; K+/H+ excreted in urine

139
Q

how does renin work

A

kidneys recognize low BP –> release RENIN –> causes conversion of angiotensinogen (made by liver) in angiotensin-I

angiotensin-I circulates into lung vasculature where it encounters angiotensin coverting enzyme (ACE)

ACE splits antiotensin-I into angiotensin-II -which circulates and increases BP

140
Q

What does angiotensin II do

A

stimulates aldosterone production
causes inc in sympathetic activty
causes arteriolar vasoconstriction (same as ADH)
causes release of ADH (inhibits urine loss to inc BP)

141
Q

where are androgens released

A

zona reticularis

142
Q

androgens and what do they do

A

DHEA: weak; precursor for test, est, and androsten- and DHT

Androstenedione: weak, converted to testerone or esterone (precursor to estradiol)

DHT: more potent androgen than testosterone
made from conversion of testosterone
active in tissue where test is not

143
Q

cells of the adrenal medulla synthesize?

A

chromaffin cells; catecholamines: norepi / epi

144
Q

chromaffin cells are considered

A

modified sympathetic ganglion of the ANS

145
Q

SNS sends signal thru what type of nerves to chromaffin cells

A

splanchnic

146
Q

what effects do catecholamines

A

intensify sympathetic responses throughout the body

147
Q

glands of pancreas

A

endocrine and exocrine glands

148
Q

pancreas structure includes

A

head, body, tail

149
Q

what are the endocrine cells and where are they located

A

excocrine acini; pancreatic islets (islets of langerhanns)

a - glucagon
b - insulin
d - somatostatin: GHIH
f - PP cells; secrete pancreatic polypeptide

150
Q

how is glucagon released

A

pancreas senses low blood glucose - releases glucagon

151
Q

what is the role of glucagon

A

liver breaks down glycogen
stims liver take up of AA to convert to glucose
stims breakdown of triglycerides to glycerol and FFA (lipolysis)

152
Q

glucagon is regulated through what type of feedback

A

negative; glycogen levels dec as serum glucose increases

153
Q

how is insulin released

A

small intestine releases GLUCOSE DEPENDENT INSULINOTROPIC PEPTIDE (GDIP - gastric inhibitory peptide) —> triggers release of insulin from pancreas

as nutrients are broken down and absorbed, it raises blood glucose for more insulin to be released

154
Q

what does insulin do

A 
facilitates glucose uptake into cells;
stims glycolysis for ATP
stims glycogenesis (glycogen prod)
promotes trig and protein synth
regulated thru negative feedback FROM serum glucose levels 
insulin levels dec as gluc dec
155
Q

GHIHs actions are based in what

A

concentration based

156
Q

GHIH acts in paracrine manner by inhibiting

A

insulin and glucagon

157
Q

GHIH acts in endocrine manner by inhibiting

A

hGH from anterior pituitary gland

158
Q

pancreatic polypeptides based on

A

concentration

159
Q

pancreatic polypeptides

A

inhibit somatostatin release
inhibit gallbladder contraction
inhibits secretion of bicarb and pancreatic enzymes
APPETITE suppression

160
Q

blood sugar in a fasted state

A

glucagon released; alpha cells of pancreas; acts on hepatocytes (liver cells); gluconeogenesis-glucose released to blood stream by hepatocytes

161
Q

blood sugar after a meal

A

insulin released by beta cells; facilitates diffusion of glucose in cells; increases uptake of amino acids and conversion of glucose to glycogen

162
Q

ovaries synthesize and secrete

A

estrogen, progesterone, inhibin and relaxin

163
Q

what regulates menstrual cycle and maintains pregnancy and mammary glands for lactation

A

estrogen, progesterone, LH, and FSH

164
Q

what are the roles for inhibin and relaxin

A

inhibin inhibits FSH - follice development

relaxin relaxes the pubic symphysis and relaxes the cervix

165
Q

testes produce

A

testosterone and inhibin; testosterone reg sperm and inhibin exists do inhibit sperm production if concentration is too high

166
Q

pineal gland secretes

A

melatonin - “biological clock”

167
Q

heart produces

A

atrial-natriuretic peptide (ANP-a type natriuretic peptide) synth’ed when ATRIA is stretched to far - REDUCES blood pressure

B-type natriuretic when ventricles are stretched too far

168
Q

kidneys release

A

renin: stimulates aldosterone release (aldosterone-inc sympathetic activity, arteriole vasoconstriction, release of ADH) (released at low blood pressure to raise BP)

169
Q

glucocorticoids are given to who after surgery?

A

transplant patients

170
Q

glucocorticoids decrease what?

A

decrease in eosinophils; atrophy in lymphatic tissue

171
Q

kidneys release what three hormones

A

renin / calcitriol / erythropoietin

172
Q

adipose tissue releases

A

leptin: satiety signal
adiponectin: helps to reduce insulin resistance

173
Q

skin releases

A

cholecalciferol (modified to form vitamin D)

174
Q

thymus aids with and releases

A

maturation of t cells; thymosin, thymic humoral factor, thymic factor, thymopoietin

175
Q

liver releases

A

IGF-1 / angiotensinogen (raises BP) / thombopoietin (increase platelet production) / hepcidin (blocks release of iron)

176
Q

GI tract releases

A

gastrin / cholecystokinin / glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide AKA gastric inhibitory peptide / secretin

177
Q

where is gastrin

A

secreted by G cells in stomach - stimulated by: protein ingestion, distention in stomach, vagal stim (promotes ACID BUILDUP)

178
Q

what does gastrin stimulate

A

growth of gastric mucosa

179
Q

cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted by

A

i cells of small intestine; meals containing fats and proteins; gallbladder contraction-slows gastric emptying-makes it more basic inside intestine

180
Q

GDIP (gastric inhibitory peptide) secreted by

A

k cells of small intestine; stimulated by precense of glucose, fats, and amino acids

insulin release, inhibits H+ion secretion

181
Q

secretin secreted by

A

s cells in the small intestine; fatty acids (contents less that 4.5 arrive increase of H+); inhibits effects of gastrin (makes it more basic)

182
Q

eicosanoids secreted by

A

found in all cells of the body - except RBCs; include prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes (LTs)-stimulates CHEMOTAXIS of WBCs and mediates inflammation

183
Q

histamine secreted by

A

synthesized in any tissue with mast cells and platelets; physical trauma and immune response; contraction of smooth muscles-slows breathing; dilation-lowers BP; stims gastric acid secretion in stomach; inc permeability in caps and post caps

184
Q

serotonin synthesized by

A

intestines, brain, CNS; serotonin made in intestines as reaction to bacterial colonies present; mood, anxiety, sleep etc. (can act as vasocontrictor or dilator due to concentration)

185
Q

stress response has two types of stress

A

eustress, distress

186
Q

stress response referred to as the

A

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

187
Q

what are the three stages of stress

A

alarm stage, resistance reaction, exhaustion response

188
Q

describe the alarm stage (minutes to hours)

A

initiated by ANY stressor; cortisol by glucocorticoids; lymphocytes decrease; sympathetic response increases

189
Q

describe the resistance reaction (hours to weeks)

A

recovery phase; cortisol declines, immune system reboots; sympathetic reduces, parasympathetic increases

190
Q

exhaustion response

A

depletion of energy; prolonged exposure to cortisol, stim of sympathetic; fatigue-depression-anxiety

191
Q

aging endocrines systems

A

hGH reduced, t3/t4 reduced, increased PTH likely due to decreased dietary calcium intake

192
Q

aging endocrine systems adrenal coretex

A

becomes fibrous, dec of cortisol/aldosterone, medulla is unaffected (protected); high blood glucose because slower insulin release from pancreas

A&P II (4 decks)

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