Block 1 Exam Flashcards
what are some examples of solutions for fixation?
Neutral buffered formalin and bouin fluid
Proton pumps are examples of—
Examples of primary transporters
internuerons
most abundant. Impulses between sensory and efferent neruons.
monocyte colony stimulating factor
interactua con monocyte precursor cell
How is histological preparation of bone different than other tissues?
- Because of its hardness, bone cannot be sectioned routinely.
- Bone matrix is usually softened by immersion in a decalcifying solution before paraffin embedding
- or embedded in plastic after fixation and sectioned with a specialized microtome.
endonerium
a layer of delicate connective tissue, loose connective tissue, around the myelin sheath of each myelinated nerve fiber
DESCRIBE WRIGHT/ GIEMA STAIN
ITS USED TO IDENTIFY TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS.
Most organs can be divided into __________, which is composed of the cells responsible for the organ’s specialized functions
parenchyma
Elastic Fibers
hydrophobic fiber produced by fibroblast. Formed by interaction of elastin and fibrillin. This give elasticity to the tossues and allow them to recoil after stretching. Microfibrils are important in this fibers
Thinnr than collgen fibers
Stain: take acidic dye better than collagen
special dye: orcein or resorcin-fuchsin
what is a electrochemical gradient?
combination of the concentration gradient (chemical potential) and the voltage gradient across the membrane
uniport (monoport)
transmembranal transportation unidirectional
How we transport water?
Small molecules can be transported by simple diffusion but channel proteins take care of this mostly.
What is the endosteum?
inside the bone. Covers the trabeculae and contains: osteoprogenitors/ mesenchymal cells, osteoblast and bone lining cells.
More delicate because we dont have the fibrous part as the periosteum
What are adipocytes?
specially adapted lipid-storing support cells that act as energy store AND cushioning and padding.
STAINS WITH EOSIN:
ELASTIN STAINS–
CYTOPLASMIC STAINS–
MUSCLES-
ELASTIN STAINS– GLASSY RED
COLLAGEN STAINS- PINK
MUSCLES- PINK
gray matter
area where we have unmyelinated axons
this epithelium are usually specialized for absorption, with apical cilia or microvilvi
simple columnar epithelium
What is the difference between a transporter and a channel?
Transporter undergo conformational changes and channels are just a “tubo” where they can go through.
B linfocytes
maduran en el bone morrow
initial segment
is where the action potential is generated
Autoradiography
A method of localizing newly synthesized macromolecules (DNA, RNA, protein, glycoproteins, polysaccharides) in cells or tissue sections; radiolabeled molecules react with AgBr crystals to produce dark spots in images
What is a histological phenomenon that occurs in regards to collagen fibers and calcification in bone? What staining property does this give histologically prepared bone?
- The association of minerals with collagen fibers during calcification provides the hardness and resistance required for bone function.
- If a bone is decalcified by a histologist, its shape is preserved but it becomes soft and pliable like other connective tissues.
- Because of its high collagen content, decalcified bone matrix is usually acidophilic.
which are the rate limiting steps in glycolysis?
Glucose to glucose 6 phosphate by hexokinase
PEP to pyruvate by pyruvate kinase
Nissl Bodies
ribosomes scattered in the cytoplasm of the neuron. Stain dark purple
what are gap junctions?
cell structures that permit direct passage of signaling molecules, small molecules, from one to another
glycolysis
10 step anaerobic process in which glucose is broken down to 2 pyrovate and while doing this ATP is made. This is in the cytoplasm . This makes 2 ATP so its inefficient.
retrograde transport
transport is from the axon terminal to the cell body. Small molecules and proteins destined for degradation are transported to endolysosomes of th soma.
Some viruses use it to spread fro one neuron to the next and its how toxins are transported into the CNS
H&E Stain
Hematoxylin stains DNA and other acidic structures dark blue or purple, and eosin stains other cytoplasmic components and collagen pink
origen de paquetas
se origina porque megakaryocyte se rompe
- celula myeloid afectada por trombopoetina
- se hace el megakaryblast
- se hace grande y hace endomitosis: replicacion DNA pero no se divide y crea el megakaryocyte
- El megakaryocito tendra processes llamados proplatelets
- los proplatelets se dividen y se salen
WHAT ARE Acidophilic components?
Cationic cell components, such as proteins with many ionized amino groups, that have an affinity for acidic dyes
identify epithelium
stratified squamous epithelium
The Cl channel is considered a ——-
ABC transporter
identify the epithelium
transitional epithelium
como se hace lamaduracion de linfocitos
- linfoblasto: celula grande y se puede dividir 2-3 veces
- linfocyto: se hacen mas pequeno
Se hacen proteinas especificas para entonces se caracterice en B or T cells
What are the cells of mononuclear phagocyte system? (tipos de macrophagos)
- monocyte:
- in liver
- precursos of macrophages
- macrophage:
- connective tissue, lymphoid organs, lungs, bone marrow
- prodcution of cytokines, chemotactic factors and other molecules in inflammation, antigen presentation
- Kupffer cells :
- liver
- same as macrophages
- microglial cell:
- in CNS
- same as macrophages
- langherhans cell:
- epidermis of skin
- antigen processing and presentation
- dendritic cell:
- lymph nodes, spleen
- antigen processing and presentation
- osteoclast (from fusion of several macrophages):
- bone
- localized digestion of bone matrix
- mulinuclear giant cell: (from fussion of several macrophages)
- in connective tissue under various pathological conditions
Adipose tissue, cartilage tissue, blood and bone are types of ________ _______ ________
Adipose tissue, cartilage tissue, blood and bone are types of specialized connective tissue
What are Voltage dependant Ca channels in muscles? VCCs
channels found in tubules T which change conformation in response to membrane depolarization, and they directly activate Ca release channel into the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane and that way hydrolisis of ATP in myosin starts muscle contraction
WHAT ARE EXAMPLES OF ACIDIC COMPONENTS?
NUCLEIC ACIDS, DNA, SULFATE GROUP AND CARBOXYLIC GROUPS
What is cystic fribrosis?
most commonly potentially lethal autosomal recessive disease of caucasians. Its manifested by exocrine pancreatic insuffency, high [] of cl in sweat, male infertility, and airway disease (increased viscosity )
This is causes by mutations in the gene CFTR wich contains ABC motif and encode Cl channels. ATP binding to CFTR is needed for channel to open.
Explain ground substance components structure
As shown here schematically, connective tissue ground substance
contains a vast complex of proteoglycans linked to very
long hyaluronan molecules. Each proteoglycan monomer has
a core protein with a few or many side chains of the sulfated
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
osteogenesis
formation of bone; two types of ossification: intramembranous and endochrondral. In both processes woven bone is produced first and then replaced with lamellar bone
The 9 +2 arrangement of cillia is made of —–, whereas arms composed of the protein ——.
The 9 +2 arrangement of cillia is made of -microtubules-, whereas arms composed of the protein -dynein-
functional syncytium
formed by gap junctions that allow information from cell to the next, allowing muscle cell to contract in synchrony
Type IIa muscle fibers
- Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers
- physiological and histological features intermediate between those of the other two types.
Ex. major muscles of legs
The Golgi stain is particularly good at revealing
NEURONAL FIBERS
The most common type of cells in connective tissue is:
fibroblast
examples of Modifications on apical surface
microvilli, stereocilia and flagella
What is the osteon?
It can also be known as Harvesian system. Are concentric lamellae that surrounds a canal in which are blood vessels, nerves and endosteum.
What are the parts of the long bones?
epiphyses: composed of cancellous bone covered with compact bone.
diaphysis: dense bone with a region of cancellous bone
The sensory (afferent) component ___________ information and _________it to the CNS for processing
The sensory (afferent) component receives information and transmits it to the CNS for processing
most unipolar
Schwann Cells
Envelop one axon per cell to provide myelin covering
function: support myelinated and unmyelinared nerve.
Ejemplos de basic dyes
Toluidine blue, alcian blue, methylene blue, hematoxylin
Why do most tissues rich in type I collagen not undergo calcification?
-they lack osteocalcin and matrix vesicles
Adherent junction/ zonula adherens
LOCATION: located basal to zonulae occludentes
FUNCTION: joins cell membranes and links cytoskeleton of two cells via transmembrane linker proteins
Types of support cells: Neuroglia
- astrocytes
- oligodendrocytes
- microglial cells
- ependymal cells
- schwan cells
Location and appearance lamellar bone (type of bone)
multiple layers of calcified matrix, organized on sheets around a canal. Each lamella has type 1 collagen with orthogonal orientation ( different directions)
all normal regions of adult
Connective tissue forms _______ ________ for the body; provides __________ ________ and its the site of exchange of waste products ,______ and ______
connective tissue forms structural support of the body and provides mechanical stability and its the site of exchange of waste products, oxigen and nutrients
What are desmosomes or macula adherens?
resembles a single spot weld and does not form a belt around the cell; are discshaped structures at the surface of one cell that are matched
with identical structures at an adjacent cell surface.
T linfocytes
linfocitos que maduran en el timo
The motor component divides in:
- Somatic – motor output controlled consciously or voluntarily (eg, by skeletal muscle effectors)
- Autonomic – motor output not controlled consciously (eg, by heart or gland effectors)
What are possible shapes of epithelial cells?
columnar, cuboidal, squamous; c ells size and morphology are generally dictated by their function
glycogen
high molecular weight polysaccharide similar to amylopectin, but have 1,6- linkages
plasmalemma
the cell membrane of neurons
________ in gastric parietal cells mantains the _____ of the stomach
P-ATPase in gastric parietal cells mantains the low PH of the stomach.
Infiltration
The tissue is placed in melted paraffin until it becomes completely saturated with this substance
Cuanto toma la maduracion eritropoiesis?
Una semana, 3-5 divisiones y tendra funciones especificos, nucleo se hace pequeno o se desaprece, aumento de hemoglobina y no tiene organelos.
proeritoblasto- progenitor cell celular grande con cromatina suelta, cytoplasm basophilic
basophilic eritoblasto- sintesis de hemoglobina empieza
polycromatophilic eritroblasto- cambia el color del eritrocito
orthohematophilic eritroblasto- el nucleo se empieza a salir, acidophilic dye es mas intenso.
reticulocito- ya el nucleo esta afuera
eritrocito
Two Components of Tissues
Cells and Extracellular Matrix
endochondral ossification
process in which bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage because osteoblast invades.
Happens in most bones of the body.
What are the two linings seen in bone? Describe them.
- All bones are lined on their internal and external surfaces by layers of connective tissue containing osteogenic cells
- endosteum on the internal surface surrounding the marrow cavity
- periosteum on the external surface
epineurium
Epinerium is composed of dense irregular collagenous connective tissue containing some thick elastic fibers that completely surround the nerve
P-ATPase
primary active transport pump that forms phosphorylated intermediates that drive on translocation
“P” phosphorilation
Ex. Ca ATP ase
Basophilos
el menos de los leucocitos y el nucleo es en 2 lobulos irregulares. Basofilicos por la presencia de heparin y tienen histamina, platelet activating factor
Suplementan funcion de mast cells
What is the periosteum ?
outer fibrous layer of dense connective tissue containing: Type 1 Collagen, fibroblast and blood vessels
-Bundles of periosteal collagen, called perforating (or Sharpey) fibers, penetrate the bone matrix and bind the periosteum to the bone.
inner layer: is more cellular and has osteoblasts, bone lining cells and stem cells .
-With the potential to proliferate extensively and produce many new osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells play a prominent role in bone growth and repair
Eosinophilos
se pintan rosa porque son eosinophilicos/acidos. Tiene un nucleo en dos lobulos. modula respuestas inflamatorias y remueve complejos antigeno-anticuerpo por fagocitosis. Abundante en linea del intetino y en inflamaciones cronicas.
Cuando tenemos la mayor de caracteristicas morfologicas?
cuando la cel es madura
What are the cells of the nervous system?
neurons: responsible for the receptive, integrative, and motor functions of the nervous system
supporting cells (nueroglial cells): responsible for supporting, protecting, and assisting neurons in neural transmission
Name the support cells in the connective tissue:
- fibroblastos
- chondrocytes
- osteoblasts
- myofibroblasts
- adipocytes
what are mast cells?
Origin: bone morrow stem cells
Structure : They are ovoid and posses a centrally placed, spherical nucleus, have numerous granules in the cytoplasm.
Function: inflammatory response, innate immunity, and tissue repair. Primary mediator: histamine; Secondary: leukotrienes, thromboxanes, and prostaglandins.
what is hybridization
the specific binding between two single strands of nucleic acid, which occurs under appropriate conditions if the strands are complementary.
Identify type of epithelium
Simple squamous epithelium
hyaluronidase
Enzyme that cleaves hyaluronic acid into numerous small fragments. thus convesting the gel state of the ECM to a liquid state letting rapid spread of the bacteria through the connective tissue spaces
What organelle is abundant in dendrites?
mitochrondia
What is voltage or ligant gatting?
conformational changes made into the channel or pore that allows molecules to pass through like ions, metabolites, proteins. Its not that specific and its more based on size.
intramembranous ossification
process by which bone forms directly from mesenchymal tissue and secretes osteoid, which calcifies, forming irregular areas of woven bone
Most flat bones begins this way– skull jaws, scapula and clavicle
Note:
Newborns have fontanelles on head are areas of skull which the membranous tissue is not yet ossified
Laminin
large glycoproteins that self assemble as a lacelike network immediately below the cells’ basal poles where they are held in place by the transmembrane integrins
glucokinase
liver cells and beta cells of the pancreas, makes glucose to glucose 6 phosphate to mantain glucose in the cell. IRREVERSABLE
Epithelial desmosomes attach to —
cable like filaments of cytokeratin
Blood test for diabetes
since RBC can metabolize glucose to lactose, acidification happens giving a false dx of hypoglycemia.
We can fix this by adding sodium fluoride or sulfhydryl reagents to inhibit glycolysis. This is because fluoride is a strong competito with endose and fluoride can form a complex with phosphate and Mg 2+ in the active site of the enzyme, blocking access of the substrate
What are the parts of the neurons?
Connective tissue is composed of:
support cells and their associated matrix
WHAT IS active transport?
type of transported mediated by proteins that requires energy to transport large molecules from low [] to high []
type: uniport or cotransport, opposite directions.
Conective tissue can be _____ and _____.
Conective tissue can be mature and embryonic
What is the terminal web?
Is a complex of actin and spectrin molecules as well as intermediate filaments located at the cortex of the epithelial cells.
What is connective tissue?
Cells that produe an extracellular matrix and serve to link or support other specialized tissues by forming tendons, bone or fatty tissue.
The cells of the nervous system are derived from:
ectoderm
What are glycosaminoglycans- GAGs?
negatively charged long, rod- like chains of repeating disaccharides that have the capability of binding large quantities of water. Ex hyalyronic acid
What are the cellular components of Extracellular matrix?
fixed cells: which develop and remain in place withing the connective tissue. Ex fibroblasts, adipose cells, macrophages and pericytes
transcient cells: originate in bone morrow and circulate the bloodstream. Ex lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, macrophages and mast cells
MASSON STAIN IS USED FOR…
CONNECTIVE TISSUE NUCLEI AND OTHER BASIC LIKING ARE STAINED RED
In ________ bundles of _____ and _____ __________ crisscross the sarcoplasm obliquely
In smooth muscle cell bundles of thin and thick myofilaments crisscross the sarcoplasm obliquely
Explain gap junction structure
six closely packed transmembrane channel-forming proteins (connexins) that assember form channel structures called connexons (hemochannels)
Two connexons, one in each cell form the gap junction
Donde podemos encontrar EM con muchas microfillas elasticas
lung, skin, blood vessel walls
What is lamina propria
the connective tissue that underlies the epithelia lining the organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems
Explain the diagram
The rate of transport of substrate is plotted against the concentration of substrate in the extracellular medium. Incommon with enzyme catalysis, transporter-catalyzed uptake has a maximum transport rate, Tmax (saturable). Kt is the concentration at which the rate of substrate uptake is half-maximal. For simple diffusion, the transport rate is slower and directly proportional to substrate concentration.
GLU 2
Transporter in pancreatic beta cells that responds to intake of food and the increase of glucose concetration. They increase glucose uptake into beta cells, which stimulates insulin secretion.
The polarity of the cell are determined
by the properties of each domain (apical, basal, basolateral surface of cell) , which are determined by specific lipids and integral membrane proteins
type of hemisdosome found in stratified squamous and pseudostratified epithelium
Type 1
Muscles are ________ cells that allows ________, __________, _________ and other propulsive movements
Muscles are contractive cells that allows locomotion, constriction, pumping and other propulsive movements
microvilli
in epithelial cells specialized for absorption, the apical surfaces present an array of projections
(it looks like a brush)
differences between cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle
- sarcoplasmic reticulum is less developed
- T tubules are wider, located in Z lines
- almost half of the volume of the cardiac muscle cell is occupied by mitochondria
sarcomere possesses the same substructure
Types of primary active transports or types of pumps
- coupling factor ATPases (F-ATPases)
- V-type (vacuolar) H-ATPase
- P-ATPase
- ATP binding cassete (ABC) transporters
X linked Menkes disease
lethal disorder that have defective copper-transporting P-ATPase, expressed in all tissues except the liver in this disease.
Copper enter the intestinal cells but cant be transported resulting in copper defficency
zone of calcified cartilage
chrondrocytes about to go apoptosis release matrix vesicles and osteocalcin to begin matrix calcification by hydroxypatite crystals.
– where secondary ossification happens
After osteoblast synthetic activity is complete, what is their fate?
- some differentiate as osteocytes entrapped in matrix-bound lacunae
- some flatten and cover the matrix surface as bone lining cells
- the majority undergo apoptosis
Structure of stereocilia
Are supported by internal bundles of actin filaments that are cross linked by fimbrin and espin
ezrin: anchors the actin filament to the plasma membrane
What substances released in matrix vesicles promote calcification of the matrix?
-Calcium-binding proteins, notably osteocalcin, and the phosphatases released from cells in matrix vesicles promote calcification of the matrix
What are TAP transporters?
A class of ABC transporters
“Transporters Antigen Presentation”
are required to iniate immune responses against foreign proteins; mediate transport of peptides from cytosol into endoplasmic reticulum.
Basic dyes
Tienen carga positiva por lo que se unen a cosas con carga negativa (componentes anionicos)
oligodendrocytes
Two types: interfasicullar o satellite
manufacturing and maintaining myelin of CNS , a single cell can provide for 50 axons.
type of bone in short bones:
cores of spongy bone and covered completely in compact bone
Basement membrane
All epithelial cells in contact with subjacent connective tissue have at their basal surfaces a specialized, feltlike sheet of extracellular material referred to as this
Site of rxn for glycolysis
cytoplasm
Resolving power
The smallest distance between two particles at which they can be seen as separate objects
Neutrofilos
. Mas abundantes y tiene nucleos de 2-5 lobulos. En mujeres parece un muslo de pollo el nucleo.
En la sangre estan inactivos y son esferas
En el tejido son activos y son amoeboide
Granulos no especificos como myeloperoxidasa, lysozyme y defensins
Granulos especificos para degradar ECM, bactericidal proteins y new cell membrane components insertion
Why are osteoclast large in size and multinucleated?
-due to their origin from the fusion of bone marrow-derived monocytes
How many G3P are per glucose molecule?
2
Transverse Tubules
also knows as T tubules extend into the interior of mucle cell to facilitate conduction of wave of depolarization
Defectos en neutrofilos?
Ocasiona mas infecciones bacterianas y persistentes.
Puede tener Baja adhesion de paredes de venulas y asusencia de granulos
Peripheral neuroglia
shwann cells and satelites cells
Progenitor cells
se llaman colony forming units, hacen colonias de un solo tipo de celula.
Hay 4 linajes: eritroid, trombocito, granulocito-monocito y linfoide.
Nerve impulses are conducted much faster in _________along ____________ than along _______________
Nerve impulses are conducted much faster along myelinated axons than along unmyelinated axons.
hexokinase
found in all cells, makes glucose to glucose 6 phosphate to mantain glucose in the cell
Irreversible
What are osteoblast?
Secrete EMC of bone
The neuron structure :
- the nucleus is central y ovoid
- rER is a prominent feature
- numerous mithochondria
- neurofilaments
identify epithelium
stratified columnar cells
Indirect immunocytochemistry
Uses a primary antibody made against the protein of interest and a labeled secondary antibody made in another species against the primary antibody
what is different in myosin filaments in smooth muscle fibers?
have less regular arrangement and less crossbridges
Structure of myofibirls
composed of bundles of myofilaments. Actin- thin ones and myosin- thick ones.
catenin
protein to whom cytoplasmic cadherins binds, these link to actin filaments (cytoskeleton) with actin binding proteins
Volkmann’s canals
transverse perforating canals.
Examples of simple squamous epithelium
endothelium
mesothelium
endocardium
What are pericytes?
These cells surround endothelial cells of capillaries and small venules. Reside outside of the connective tissue because they have their own basal lamina.
Have characteristics of: endothelial cells and smooth cells (actin, myosin, and tropomyosin)
may function on contraction
Identify epithelium and describe
Transitional epitehlium
Its compsed of layers of cells that are either squamous or cuboidal. Its located EXCLUSIVELY in the urinary system
what is skeletal muscle?
Multinucleated cells with numerous nuclei peripherally located just beneath the cell membrane. responsible for voluntary movement
Identify the type of epithelium cell in the image and its functions
Simple cuboidal epithelium
This cells present a centrally placed nucleus. They made uo ducts of many glands of the body, covering the ovary, composed many kidney tubules.
What are the functions of simple squamous epithelium?
- infiltration
- diffusion- lungs
- transport- cardiovascular system
- secretion
- reduction of friction - peritoneal cavity
3 blood parts
se divide en erythrocitos, plasma y buffy coat
Types of cancellous bones/ organization
- mature lamellar bone- matriz are sheets
- woven bone- newly formed, usually in newborns and are randomly arranged
What are Adipose Cells?
- Origin: undifferentiated fibroblast-like mesenchymal cells
- Function: synthesis or storage of triglycerides
- Produce hormones like Adipokines
- Types of fat cells: unilocular fat cells white adipose tissue and multilocular fat cells brown adipose tissue
What are ionophores?
molecules that facillitate the tranport of ions across the membrane and allow net movement of ion only down their electrochemical gradient by increasing the permeability of specific ions.
Types: mobile carries or channel
This is how antibiotics works.
what is stroma?
cells of which have a supporting role in the organ like connective tissue ; always CT except in brain and spinal cord
What is an antigen?
a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
WHAT ELEMENTS DISPLAY BASOPHILIA? (BASIC LOVING)
HETEROCHROMATIN NUCLEI CYTOPLASMIC COMPONENTS- IONIZED PHOSPHATE IN RIBOSOMAL RNA EXTRACELLULAR MATERIALS LIKE COMPLEX CARBS
What is cardiac muscle?
nonvoluntary striated muscle limited to the heart and proximal portions of the pulmonary veins.
Show striations due to arrangement of actin and myosin in the sarcomeres. Has intercalated discs, specialized attachment sites between adjacent cells.
Location: myocardium
Monocito
precursor de macrofagos osteoclastos y microglia. Tienen forma de C. Todos son antigen presentinf cells y reparacion de tejido
Identify the image and describe
Quiescent fibroblast or fibrocytes
The fibroblast lose thei voluminous basophilic cytoplasm and the nuclei gets reduced.
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Permits resolution around 3 nm; creates a greyscale image where the shade depends on whether electrons readily passed through the sample (brighter) or whether they were absorbed or deflected (darker). Cut with diamonds
PAS reaction
Periodic acid-Schiff reagent reacts with aldehyde residues on sugars to produce a purple or magenta color; stains polysaccharides and glycoproteins 1. GLYCOGEN 2. MUCUS 3. BASEMENT MEMBRANE 4. RETICULAR FIBERS IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Muscle fibers are arranged _______ to one another, and there long _________ and _________.
Muscle fibers are arranged parallel to one another, and there long cylindrical and striated
Identify parts of the nervous system and the classification
kinase
phosphorylate molecules
Examples of facilitated diffusion channel
H20, Na, K, Ca, cl, GLU 1-5
site of oxidative phosphorilation
mithocondrial inner membrane
agranulocito
Lumphocitos y monocytos
WHAT COLOR PLATELETS STAINS WITH GIEMSA DYE?
LIGHT BLUE
What is the cement line?
boundary of an osteon
what is SGLT1?
symport transporter that pumps glucose into the cell and passes out of the cell by facilitated diffusion meduated by GLUT 2 uniporter.
the gradient its mantained by Na/K ATPase
Bone morrow
Lo encontramos en huesos largos en hueso esponjoso
dos tipos: red y yellow (lleno de grasa)
zone of hypertrophy
contains swoller, terminally differentiated chrondrocytes which compress the matrix into align spicules and stiffen it by secretion of type X collagen
What is extracellular matrix?
consists of ground substance (gelly like), cells and fiber embbeded in it. Provides mechanical, structure support, extracellular communication, provides pathways for cell migration and modulate cell growth.
glycosaminoglycans
(GAGs) anionic unbranched long-chain polysaccharides containing aminated sugars.
tipos de leucocitos
granulocito y agranulocito
The 2 groups of connective tissue are:
Connective tissue proper and Spcialized connective tissue
By what process do osteoblast secretions become bone matrix?
- Matrix components are secreted at the cell surface in contact with existing bone matrix, producing a layer of unique collagen-rich material called osteoid between the osteoblast layer and the preexisting bone surface.
- Prominent among the noncollagen proteins secreted by osteoblasts is the vitamin K-dependent polypeptide osteocalcin
- also release membrane-enclosed matrix vesicles rich in alkaline phosphatase and other enzymes whose activity raises the local concentration of PO43- ions - together with various glycoproteins binds Ca2+ ions and concentrates this mineral locally
- with high concentrations of both these ions, matrix vesicles serve as foci for the formation of hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] crystals, the first visible step in calcification
- These crystals grow rapidly by accretion of more mineral and eventually produce a confluent mass of calcified material embedding the collagen fibers and proteoglycans (surrounds collagen fibers and other macromolecules)
Type I
- Slow, oxidative fibers
- adapted for slow contractions over long periods without fatigue
- many mitochondria
- many surrounding capillaries, and much
myoglobin (red fibers )
Ex. postural muscles of back
Cell body
it’s the central part of the neuron which has neuron, organelles, projections called dendrites, and a long projection called axon
type of transport that allow small, non polar molecules (O2, CO2, N2) , and uncharged polar molecules (urea, ethanol, small organic compounds) to move through the membrane without aid of proteins.
simple diffusion
immunohistochemistry
highly specific interaction between molecules between antigen and antibodies.
granulocyte colony stimulating factor
interactura con neutrophil precursors cells
DESCRIBE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE OSTEON
Osteoclast begin to dig a hole and at somepoint they die and leave a hole. this hole its gonna fill up with vessels, osteoblast. Osteoblast will create bone.
cancellous bone or spongy bone
interconnected thin spicules or trabeculae covered by endosteum
its located inner region of bones, adjacent to marrow cavities
trabeculae makes spongy bone “flexible”
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Its the sER, and its store intracellular calcium
Structure of Actin:
Its composed of F-actin, tropomyosin y troponina.
What are neuromusculat junction/motor end plate?
where neruon synapse with skeleytal muscle, the specialized synapse.
Which proteins are important for adherens junctions?
cadherins y catenins
Fixation
Small pieces of tissue are placed in solutions of chemicals that preserve by cross-linking proteins and inactivating degradative enzymes.
Lateral domain or pole
Lateral side of the cell and has structures link the lindividual cells together into a functional unit
Junctional complexes
cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
cilia
long projecting structures, larger than microvilli, which contain internal array sof microtubules. most cell types have at least one cilium of variable length usually called a primary cilium which is not motile but is enriched with receptors and signal transduction complexes for detection of light, odors, motion, and flow of liquid past the cells
nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
disease characterized by excessive urination but without hyperglycemia characteristic of diabetes mellitus. This is caused by mutation in aquaporin 2
Identify the image and describe
active state of fibroblast.
The active fibroblast have a basophilic cytoplasm reflectinve collagen synthesis.
What is the initial segment?
It’s the region between the axon hillock and the myelin sheath and its where the action potential is generated
Dense regular elastic connective tissue
It has coarse branching elastic fibers with only a few collagen fibers. It’s present in blood cells, ligamentum flavum of the vertebral column, and the suspensory ligament of the penis
astrocytes
Two types: protoplasmic, in grey matter, and fibrous in white matter.
stellete shaped cells. they have many short branching processes, the foot of astrocytes form part of the blood brain barrier. Remove ions, neurotransmitter, and remnant if neuronal metabolism.
They have intermediate filaments called glial fibrillar acidic protein, GFAP, this is unique to astrocytes.
How can we regulate glycolysis?
hexokinase- inhibited by glucose 6-P
PFK1- inhibited by ATP and activated by ADP
pyruvate kinase- activated by Fructose 1,6- biphosphate
Role of integral transmembrane proteins
Transporting molecules to maintain concentration gradients of Na, K and Ca. The fuel for this is ATP.
What are neuroglia cells and their functions?
Known also as glial cells, do not participate in synaptic interactions and electical signaling. The most numerous type of cell in the brain. Lack axon and dendrites.
- Physical support and protection for neurons
- Insulation for nerve cell bodies and processes that facilitates rapid transmission
- repair neuronal injury
- regulation of the internal fluid environment
- clearance of neurotransmitters
- metabolic exchange between the vascular system and the neurons of the nervous system
Red bone marrow
tenemos stroma, cordones hemopoieticos o islas de celulas como osteoblastos y megacariocitos, capilares sinusoidal (importante enter circulation), macrofagos
Stratified Squamous Nonkeratinized Epithelium
Lines wet cavities (mouth, esophagus, and vagina) where water loss is not a problem; the flattened cells of the surface layer contain much less keratin, retaining their nuclei and metabolic function
Families of collagen are:
fibrillar collagen: 1,2,3,5,11
short-chain collagen: 8,10
basement membrane collagens: 4
other collagen: 6,7,13
1,2,3 are arranged as rope like fibrils and are the main forms of fibrillar collagen
Basement membrane
All epithelial cells in contact with subjacent connective tissue have at their basal surfaces a specialized, feltlike sheet of extracellular material referred to as this It has two parts: basal lamina and reticular lamina
Bone marrow is in the middle of the —
bone
Structure of Microvillus
Each microvillus contains a core of 25 to 30 actin filament bundle, cross-linked to each other by a number of actin-binding proteins, such asespin,fascin,villin, andfimbrin
Identify the type of cell in the image
Simple squamous epithelium
Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium
- epithelium that gives more protection
- Layers of cells composing the free surface are dead, non nucleated, filled with keratin.
Ex. skin
structure of myosin
its composed of myosin II
Identify cross section and longitudinal section, and type of muscle
smooth muscle fiber
Identify ZO1, ZO2, ZO3, actin, claudin. occludin, and JAM
What type of muscle tissue is this one? and mention parts
smooth mucle fibers
Fibers ar fusiform elongated cells the expanded central portion contains an oval nucleus housing two or more nucleoli.
Explica como funciona Ca-ATPase
Symport system
transmembranal transportation involving two cotransported substrates.
Ex. glucose symporter SGLT1
identify epithelium
simple cuboidal epithelium
Identify the parts of image, identify what tissue its
Transmembrane proteins in tight junctions:
- occludings
- claudins
- nectins
- junctional adhesive molecules (JAMs)
identify epithelium
simple cuboidal epithelium
How many parts have the epiphyseal cartilage plate and their names
zone of reserve
proliferative zone
zone of hypertrophy
zone of calcified cartilage
zone of ossification
What we can see in muscle contraction in the sarcometer?
During muscle contraction, the various transverse bands behave characteristically.
I band becomes narrower
H band and M line are extinguished
Z disks move closer together (approaching the interface between the A and I bands)
A bands remains unaltered.
Where are active osteoblast typically located? How are they fixed in these locations and how do they appear?
- located exclusively at the surfaces of bone matrix
- bound by integrins, typically forming a single layer of cuboidal cells joined by adherent and gap junctions
epineirum
Identify the epithelium
Simple squamous epithelium
How cardiac muscle shows in sections?
Each cell has a central nuclei, large, oval although 2 nuclei are occasionally present.
Phase- contrast microscopy
Uses a lens system that produces visible images from transparent objects, and, importantly, can be used with living, cultured cells; based on principle of differential refractive indices darker or larger in relation to each other
Identify the type of cell in the image
simple squamous epithelium
What are we seeing? What its happening?
Diagram showing a synapse releasing neurotransmitters by exocytosis from the terminal bouton. Presynaptic terminals always contain a large number of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters, numerous mitochondria, and smooth ER as a source of new membrane. Some neurotransmitters are synthesized in the cell body and then transported in vesicles to the presynaptic terminal. Upon arrival of a nerve impulse, voltage-regulated Ca2+ channels permit Ca2+ entry, which triggers neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft. Excess membrane accumulating at the presynaptic region as a result of exocytosis is recycled by clathrinmediated endocytosis, which is not depicted here.
What type of tissue is this and identify parts?
Cardiac muscle
Identify the type of tissue here and describe
Dense irregular connective tissue
Contains mostly coarse collagen fibers interwoven into a meshwork that resist stress from all direction. collagen is very tightky packed so theres no space for ground substance. fibroblasts, most abundandt cell, are located between collagen bundle.
It’s located in the dermis of the skin, sheaths of nerves, capsules of spleen, testes, ovary, kidney, and lymph nodes
How actine filaments of adjacent cells are attached?
are attached by e-cadherine- catenine complex by actinin and vinculin
_____ attach the basal cellmembrane to the underlying basal lamina; they have strong adhesive properties
How are osteocytes derived? Where are they located? What are some notable structures that are observed in osteocytes?
- some osteoblasts become surrounded by the material they secrete and then differentiate as osteocytes enclosed singly within the lacunae spaced throughout the mineralized matrix
- During the transition from osteoblasts to osteocytes, the cells extend many long dendritic processes, which also become surrounded by calcifying matrix
- The processes thus come to occupy the many canaliculi, radiating from each lacuna
Identify structure
erzin
fimbrin
erzin
actin filament
Explain more in depth how osteoclast preform their function in bone remodeling and how they are regulate to preform this function.
osteoblast sense microcraks in the bone produce RANKL, receptor activator of nucelar factor KB ligand, binds to nearby monocytes to produce multi nucleated osteoclast. The osteoclast secrete lysosomal enzyme (collagenase) and digest and college making the Howship’s lacunae. The osteoclast secretes HCl, and this dissolves hydroxypatite to Ca and PO3. This gets into the blood stream. when they are done they commit suicide.
Osteoblast secrete osteoid seam (mostly collagen) to fill in lacunae. they also secrete Ca and PO3 making hydroxipatite.
Identify the type of cell in the image
simple squamous epithelium
Identify the epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium
IDENTIFY PARTS AND WHAT IT IS
axonema
Identify parts in the TEM
TEM showing one contractile unit (sarcomere) in the long
series that comprises a myofibril. In its middle is an electrondense
A band bisected by a narrow, less dense region called
the H zone. On each side of the A band are the lighter-stained I
bands, each bisected by a dense Z disc which marks one end of
the sarcomere. Mitochondria (M), glycogen granules, and small
cisternae of SER occur around the Z disc.
How does an active osteoclast function?
- the membrane domain that contacts the bone forms a circular sealing zone which binds the cell tightly to the bone matrix and surrounds an area with many surface projections, called the ruffled border
- This circumferential sealing zone allows the formation of a specialized microenvironment between the osteoclast and the matrix in which bone resorption occurs
Describe some of the structures seen in bone.
picture:
A schematic overview of the basic features of bone, including the three key cell types: osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts; their usual locations; and the typical lamellar organization of bone. Osteoblasts secrete the matrix that then hardens by calcification, trapping the differentiating cells now called osteocytes in individual lacunae. Osteocytes maintain the calcified matrix and receive nutrients from microvasculature in the central canals of the osteons via very small channels called canaliculi that interconnect the lacunae. Osteoclasts are monocyte-derived cells in bone required for bone remodeling.
The periosteum consists of dense connective tissue, with a primarily fibrous layer covering a more cellular layer. Bone is vascularized by small vessels that penetrate the matrix from the periosteum. Endosteum covers all trabeculae around the marrow cavities.
identify the epithelium
squamous non keratinized
identify type of epithelium and explain
Stratified columnar epithelium
Can be found in the conjunctiva lining the eyelids where is it both protective and mucus secreting. Large ducts in glands.
What type of muscle is this?
skeletal muscle
Stratified squamous parakeratinized epithelium
Very similar to keratinized but many cells at the surface retain thei nuclei
Ex. hard palate and gingiva
Name cell junctions
blood brain barrier
group of capillaries in brain in order to protect from the entrance of molecules could damage this tissue. Epithelial cell with tight junctions resting in basal lamina, perocytes (substitue for smooth muscle for contraction) then the foot processes of the astrocytes
identify epithelium
simple columnar epithelium
What is bone matrix? What are the three major cell types found in bone matrix? Briefly describe them.
- calcified extracellular material. 50% is inorganic: calcium hydroxapatite, mst abundant.
- organic composition: most abundant is collagen type 1 collagen, 90%; proteoglycans and mutiadhesive glycoproteins and osteocalcin, and phosphatase
Identify the type of muscle tissue and name the parts in cross and longitudinal section
Identify the type of epithelium and describe
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
contains only two layers of cuboidal cells, lines the duct of cellsof glands
Identify tissue and parts
Fluorescence microscopy
Tissue sections are irradiated with UV light, and they emit light in the visible portion of the spectrum
White matter
area where we have myelinated axons
which type of muscle is this?
cardiac muscle
Dense Regular collagenous connective tissue
It has a parallel organization of collagen and resist tensile forces with little ground substance. Thin sheet like fibroblast are located between bundles of collagen.
Identify tissue and parts
Compact bone
Parallel lamellae or densely packed osteons, with interstitial lamellae
It is located in the thick, outer region of bones
Identify epithelium
Pseudostratified epithelium,
What is the equation of glycolysis?
Glucose + 2NAD + 2Pi+ 2ADP ——> 2 pyruvates + 2 NADH + 2ATP + 2H + H2O
Classification of synapses
axodendritic: axon conecta con dendritas de otro axon
axosomatic: axon conecta con soma, cuerpo.
serial axoaxonic:
axoaxonic: Axon conecta con otro axon
Peripheral nerve structure:
Smaller elements, fiber, will be covered by endoneurium, then the fascicles will be covered by perinerium, and the groups of fasciles will be covered by epinerium
Decribe loose connective tissue/ aereolar tissue
What? Its characterized by abundant ground substance and extracellular fluid housing the connective tissue cells: fibroblasts, adipose cells, macrophages and mas cells (equal parts). Its very flexible and not resistant to stress
Composition? Predomina las fibras de colageno pero tiene fibras elasticas y reticulares.
Location? below mesothelial lining od body cavities, sorrounds parenchyma of glands.
** this is where the body first attack antigens, bacteria and foreign invaders, therefore, it has MANY cells for inflammation, allergic reactions and immune reponse**
what are intercalated discs?
Cell junctions in the Z lines.
Transverse portions: fascia adherence and desmosomes (anchoring)
Lateral portions: gap cjunctions
Smooth cell filaments:
actin is associated with caldesmon (protein blocks)
thick filaments are from myosin
microfilaments are obliquely
presence of invaginations, replace function of T tubules.
What are proteoglycans?
It constitute the family of macromolecules, each composed of a protein core to wich GAGs are covalently bonded
Name the type of junction and function
Tight junctions/ occluding junction
mostly apical
- prevents diffusion of molecules between adjacent cells
- prevents lateral migration of specialized cell memebrane proteins
Location and appearance Woven bone (type of bone)
Irregular and random arrangement of cells and collagen; lightly calcified/ no mineralized. Its replaced by lamellar bone
It is located in developing and growing bones embryonic development; bones fracture
Identify parts of the Skeletal muscle
Neuron classifications by structure:
unipolar:
bipolar: rare; associated with receptos for special senses, found in olfactory epithelium in the ganglia os vestibulochoclear
multipolar: ubiquitous (todos lados) are generally motorneurons, spinal cord and in the cerebral and cerebellar cortices.
How muscle fibers/skeletal muscle develop?
multipotential myogenic stem cells—-> myoblasts —–> line up and fuse to form myotubes (multinucleated long cells) ——> after maturation is a muscle fiber (muscle cell)
