Bloc 1: The Shape of States Flashcards
What is a Unitary State?
A unitary state is a country where a single central government holds all authority, with one parliament and one legal system. The central government may delegate powers to local authorities, but it remains the ultimate authority. Unitary states can range from highly centralized to decentralized or regionalized, making distinctions hard to define in practice.
How did unitary states historically emerge?
Unitary states formed as monarchies and centralized governments consolidated power. This occurred through:
- Medieval Monarchies – Kings reduced feudal influence (e.g., France under Louis XIV).
- Nation-State Formation – Central governments unified laws and administration (e.g., England after the Tudors).
- Colonial Legacies – Post-colonial states adopted unitary systems to ensure stability (e.g., Indonesia, African states).
- Resistance to Federalism – Some states rejected federalism to prevent fragmentation (e.g., Indonesia in 1950, post-revolutionary France).
Many unitary states later decentralized while maintaining central authority.
UNITARY STATE: What is the legal definition of a state? What are some critiques of this definition?
Territory (delimited, stable) and population (sense of belonging), political power (autonomous)
Critiques include:
- how do you quantify a ‘shared sense of belonging’?
- there are variations in international recognition of states
- stable borders are hard to define
UNITARY STATE: What is the sociological definition of a state? what are some critiques of this definition?
“A human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory” (Weber)
Critiques include:
- Violence as a defining feature
- Neglect of non-state actors
- Focus on legitimacy
- Eurocentrism
- A static definition
UNITARY STATE: Explain centralisation
Centralisation refers to a system where political, administrative, and legal authority is concentrated in the national government. The nation-state serves as the primary unit of governance, with little to no autonomy for local entities.
A key example is France before the 1980s, where centralisation stemmed from the absolute monarchy (1653–1789) and was reinforced by the French Revolution (1789–1799), which sought to unify the state under a single authority. The revolution was a turning point, replacing feudal fragmentation with a highly centralized administration that shaped modern governance.
UNITARY STATE: Explain Deconcentration
Deconcentration is when the central government delegates some decision-making powers to its local representatives while still retaining ultimate control. It is a redistribution of responsibilities, but not full autonomy.
A key example is France’s creation of the préfet in 1800 a high-ranking civil servant who represents the state, enforces policies, and manages crises. Préfets maintain law and order but are often seen negatively by the public as symbols of state authority and repression.
UNITARY STATE: What are 3 objectives of Deconcentration and 3 conditions for its successes
Objectives of Deconcentration:
1. Bring government closer to the people.
2. Strengthen local state authority.
3. Improve bureaucratic efficiency.
Conditions for Success:
1. Meaningful power delegation.
2. Adequate funding and staff.
3. Strong oversight mechanisms.
UNITARY STATE: Explain regionalisation/devolution
Regionalisation/Devolution is when a central government grants regions significant autonomy, often due to cultural, linguistic, or historical factors. Unlike federalism, there is still one constitution and legal system, but regional authorities help shape policies.
It is often asymmetrical, meaning some regions have more autonomy than others (e.g., Scotland vs. England). A key challenge is maintaining uniform laws and equality across the country.
Examples:
- Italy (since 1947) – Certain regions (e.g., Sicily, Sardinia) have special autonomy.
- UK (since the late 1990s) – Devolution granted autonomy to Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland:
- 1997: Scotland and Wales gained self-rule.
- 1998: Northern Ireland gained autonomy under the Good Friday Agreement.
UNITARY STATE: Explain the case of the Gender Recognition Reform Bill in Scotland
In 2002, the European Court of Human Rights required the UK to pass gender recognition laws, leading to the Gender Recognition Act (GRA) in 2004. Gender recognition is a devolved matter in Scotland, which consented to the GRA. In 2020, the European Commission found the law lacking, but after Brexit, the UK government refused to reform it. In 2022, the Scottish National Party (SNP) passed a Gender Recognition Reform Bill, but the UK government blocked it in 2023 using Section 35 of the Scotland Act, arguing it would create unequal systems. This sparked tensions between devolution and equality, as the SNP’s reform was blocked despite public support, highlighting political conflicts and potentially energizing pro-reform activists.
How do unitary states manage competing dynamics of centralisation and decentralisation?
Unitary states balance centralisation and decentralisation by maintaining strong central control while allowing local governments some autonomy. Initially, power is centralised to ensure unity, but decentralisation occurs to address regional needs. Local authorities may gain control over areas like education, but the central government retains power over critical issues like defense. This balance helps manage regional diversity while maintaining national cohesion.
UNITARY STATE: What does the creation of the European Union mean for this Model?
The EU challenges the unitary state model by eroding absolute sovereignty, promoting decentralization, and enforcing legal harmonization. Supranational governance limits national control, while EU laws take precedence over domestic legislation. Regional autonomy gains traction through EU support, complicating centralized rule. Additionally, tensions arise between national unity and minority rights, as seen in devolution crises like Scotland. Overall, the EU pushes unitary states toward greater decentralization and legal pluralism.
What is federalism?
Federalism is a system of governance in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central federal authority and individual member states. Each state retains a high degree of autonomy while delegating certain powers to the federal government. This structure follows the logic of superimposition, meaning both levels of government coexist and share legislative, judicial, and administrative powers. Federal systems typically have a federal constitution alongside individual state constitutions, ensuring member states collectively participate in decision-making.
How did Federalism emerge?
Federalism emerged as a solution to balancing unity and autonomy in diverse political entities. It developed primarily in:
Post-Colonial States – The U.S. (1787) pioneered federalism to unite former colonies while preserving state autonomy.
Multi-Ethnic Societies – Switzerland (1848) and Canada (1867) adopted federalism to accommodate linguistic and cultural diversity.
Political Unions – Germany (1871) and the EU (in a quasi-federal form) used federal principles to integrate previously independent entities.
Explain the ‘Coming Together Federalism’
Federalism by association - ‘Coming together Federalism’: a system where previously independent states unite to enhance internal governance or strengthen their external position while retaining autonomy. This “coming-together federalism” (Stepan, 1999) often emerges in response to military or diplomatic threats (Riker, 1964), as seen in the formation of the United States. It balances shared decision-making with state sovereignty.
What are the key principles of Federalism?
Autonomy: Entities have the power to self organise politically and legallly, have their own executive, legislative and juridicial power but cannot go against key constitutional rules
Participation and Representation: In a federal system, smaller states or regions help make decisions at the national level. They usually have representatives in a second chamber of parliament (like the Senate) to ensure their voices are heard in federal decisions. (Germany = Bundesrat Länder, US = 2 house reps per state)
Explain ‘Holding Together Federalism’
Occurs when a previously unitary state transitions to a federal system to maintain unity while recognizing internal diversity. It allows different regions or communities to gain autonomy while still remaining part of the same country. This approach helps manage ethnic, linguistic, or regional differences by giving subunits constitutional powers.
Example: Belgium was a unitary state until 1970 but adopted federalism to accommodate its Dutch- and French-speaking communities, ensuring political stability while acknowledging their differences.
How do we distinguish in practice between decentralisation, regionalisation and federalism?
Decentralization, regionalization, and federalism differ in power transfer and structure:
Decentralization – Power is delegated to local or regional levels, but the central government retains control.
Ex: France’s local governments manage services but are overseen by the central government.
Regionalization – Regions gain more political power and autonomy, with some decision-making authority.
Ex: Spain’s autonomous communities (e.g., Catalonia, Basque Country) have legislative powers.
Federalism – Power is constitutionally shared between central and state governments, both having sovereignty.
Example: Germany’s Länder have protected legislative, judicial, and administrative powers.
FEDERALISM: What are two examples of unequal representation in the US/
- Washington DC as a district and under jurisdiction of the Congress but potentially disencfranchises Black voters
- Puerto Rico as unincorporated territory. 53% voted for statehood but only 55% voted at all. Controversies over Hurricane Maria
FEDERALISM: What is layering?
Autonomy is negotiated gradually through the addition of new policies or structures changing the existing institution
FEDERALISM: What is path dependency?
Subnational units may gain autonomy through historical events or contingent factors, but once those arrangements are set, it becomes challenging to reverse them unless triggered by external (exogenous) or internal (endogenous) shocks. This can limit cooperation as established paths dictate how autonomy is exercised.
FEDERALISM: What is Critical Junctures?
Key events can trigger a major change in how power is shared between local and central governments, creating a turning point. After such a change, the way these governments work together might be very different, and the new system is hard to reverse. These moments often lead to a new balance of power, and the shift in autonomy tends to last a long time.
FEDERALISM: What is rational choice approaches?
Subnational units negotiate their autonomy based on cost-benefit calculations. If decentralization or autonomy yields political or economic benefits for both the central and subnational governments, cooperation is likely. If the costs are too high (e.g., loss of central control or resources), conflict or limited cooperation may occur.
FEDERALISM: What are Cultural Approaches?
Institutions change when social and cultural norms evolve. If there is a cultural shift towards greater autonomy or decentralisation, subnational units may push for independence. This can either lead to cooperation or tension, depending on how the shifts are managed within the institutional framework.
FEDERALISM: What is venue selection?
Political actors at the subnational level may strategically choose the most favorable venue (institutional or policy-making setting) to pursue their autonomy. This process, known as “venue shopping,” involves selecting institutional settings that increase the likelihood of gaining more power or autonomy, which can affect cooperation between different levels of government.
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: Why have decentralisation and federalism been hailed as ways to foster democracy, peace and development? What is the evidence?
Evidence suggests that decentralisation brings governments closer to citizens, making them more accountable and responsive. It can increase participation and representation by providing more local opportunities for political involvement.
However, these benefits can be undermined by clientelism, low participation, elite monopolisation or decentralised authoritarianism.
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: How does decentralised authoritarianism work?
Decentralised authoritarianism happens when local areas within a democratic country are governed by authoritarian practices.
In Oaxaca, Mexico, decentralisation in the 1980s and 90s didn’t lead to democracy; instead, it allowed local elites to maintain control through neo-patrimonialism, using state resources for personal gain. This shows decentralisation doesn’t always promote democracy and can strengthen local authoritarianism.
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: What are the causal mechanisms linking decentralisation, democracy and development?
Accountability, Participation, Responsiveness, Representation
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: How is accountability a causal mechanism for decentralisation, democracy and development?
Accountability is a key mechanism for decentralisation, democracy, and development because it brings governments closer to citizens, making it easier for people to monitor local authorities. Local authorities are held accountable through elections and other processes. However, problems can arise if proximity leads to clientelism or if elections are manipulated, politicising bureaucratic functions.
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: How is participation a causal mechanism for decentralisation, democracy and development?
Participation is a key mechanism for decentralisation, democracy, and development because decentralisation encourages people to get involved in local decision-making, such as through elections or participatory budgeting. This helps ensure that government decisions reflect the needs of citizens. However, issues like low participation, structural barriers, and the cost of involvement can limit its effectiveness.
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: How is responsiveness a causal mechanism for decentralisation, democracy and development?
Responsiveness is a causal mechanism for decentralisation, democracy, and development because local institutions can better understand and address citizens’ needs. This helps improve democratic engagement and development outcomes. However, problems can arise if it’s unclear how to collect citizens’ demands, if some voices aren’t heard, or if local institutions lack the resources or authority to act on those demands.
DCL AND DEMOCRACY: How is representation a causal mechanism for decentralisation, democracy and development?
Representation is a causal mechanism for decentralisation, democracy, and development because decentralised systems allow more people, including new profiles, to participate in the political process. Local elections are less intimidating, and smaller parties can thrive. However, problems can occur if political positions become controlled by a few elites through patronage or if local power structures are reinforced, limiting true representation.
What is neo-patrimonialism and how does it function in governance?
Neo-patrimonialism is a governance system where state power operates through personal networks rather than formal institutions. Leaders use patronage, clientelism, and public resources to maintain loyalty, often leading to corruption, weak rule of law, and inefficient governance. While it ensures political stability, it undermines institutional autonomy and fair governance.
DCL: What is ethnofederalism?
Ethnofederalism is a system where federated units are defined by ethnicity, granting ethnic groups autonomy within a larger federal structure. It aims to accommodate diversity but can also fuel division.
- In Georgia, ethnofederalism worsened ethnic tensions, particularly in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where demands for more autonomy led to separatism and violent conflict.
- In Ukraine, ethnofederalism in regions like Crimea and Donbas highlighted ethnic divides, contributing to Russia’s annexation of Crimea and the conflict in Donbas, deepening national instability.
