BLOA studies

Question 1

Hormones

Answer 1

• slower acting
• from the pituitary gland or hypothalamus
• acts in the human limbic system
• regulatory chemical substances that target specific tissues and organs to have an effect on behaviour
• impacts aspects of behaviour including attraction and aggression, as well as biological processes like respiration, blood pressure, metabolism, appetite and sleep patterns

Question 2

Hormones study: Baumgartner et al (2008)

Eval. + concl. not included

Answer 2

• investigated the effects of oxytocin on the formation of trust after it had been breached

Question 3

Baumgartner et al (2008) - procedure

Answer 3

• 49 participants in an fMRI machine
• played trust game
• CG = nasal spray, EG = oxytocin

Question 4

Baumgartner et al (2008) - results

Answer 4

• decreased response in the amygdala and caudate nucleus = EG were more likely to keep playing and investing
• primarily known for processing fear and trust, respectively

Question 5

Newcomer et al (1999)

Answer 5

Newcomer et al (1999) studied the effects of increased levels of cortisol on verbal declarative memory.

Question 6

Cortisol

Answer 6

• a steroid hormone!
• involved in stress response, blood sugar levels, diurnal cycle, reducing inflammation and assisting with memory formation.
  , made in the cortex of the adrenal glands and then released into the blood,

Question 7

Pheromones

Answer 7

Airborne chemical messages that are found in certain mammals give off different signals such as warnings of predators or sexual desire and attraction.

Question 8

Signalling pheromones

Answer 8

Pheromones release rapid effects of attraction that lead to mating behaviour.

Question 9

Primer pheromones

Answer 9

Pheromones produce longer-lasting physiological effects on the body similar to hormonal effects.

Question 10

Newcomer et al (1999)

Answer 10

• 2 experimental groups with 120mg cortisol or 80mg cortisol
• 1 control group of placebo
• Washington University Medical Center stratified sampling
• The participants were then listened to a text and were asked to recall parts of it over a period of 4 days. The experimental group with the highest cortisol dosage (120mg) performed worse on average than the other groups, however, the group with a moderate cortisol dosage (40mg), increased their results over time. While the placebo group had the highest recall scores, the results demonstrate that a moderate amount of cortisol may have assisted the participant’s ability to memorise the text.

Question 11

Culter, Friedman and McCoy (1998)

Answer 11

• a group of men aged between 25-49, heterosexual orientation and healthy
• frequency of several sociosexual behaviours over a period of two weeks, including affection, kissing and sexual intercourse.
• The participants then brought their aftershave in for it to be mixed with either ethanol or ethanol and a synthetic pheromone.
• The study demonstrated that the experimental pheromone group had an increased rate of sociosexual behaviours, implying that synthetic pheromones increase the attractiveness of a man to women.

Question 12

Hare et al (2017)

Answer 12

• tested two potential human pheromones EST and AND
  through gender and mate perception and preference
• 2 days with heterosexual participants
• distinguish gender neutral faces and rank opposite sex from scale of 1-10
  -either given clove oil or putative pheromone with a cotton ball taped to nose
• time period too short
• low external validity
• bad/inaccurate rep. of how attraction actually works
• no significant difference

Question 13

What is GABA

What roles does it play?

What type of neurotransmitter is it?

Answer 13

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that occurs mainly in the frontal lobe and hippocampus and is responsible for behaviour, stress and fear levels and helps memory recall and absorption. 38% of synapses have GABA receptors to avoid overstimulation of neural connections/neuronal overexcitability Low levels of GABA result in high anxiety, depression and intrusive thoughts. Benzodiazepines mimic the effects of GABA and are often sold as a dietary supplement to reduce stress and anxiety.

Question 14

Schmitz et al (2017)

NEUROTRANSMITTERS/ANTAGONISTS

Answer 14

• making/repressing word associations with Gami in an fMRI machine
• green light + given word = think of synonyms
• red light + given word = repress any synonyms
• participants with higher levels of GABA performed better at restricted unwanted thoughts
• high artificially environment, extraneous variables such as increased alertness or stress from being in a foreign environment
• unrealistic of how GABA is naturally processed and used
• However, the study did successfully demonstrate how GABA helps with stress and intrusive thoughts and how lower levels of the neurotransmitter can help reduce intrusive thoughts.

Question 15

Troster and Beatty (1989) - neurotransmitters/antagonists

Answer 15

• Troster & Beatty (1989) studied the effects of acetylcholine on memory, using a reductionist method by using an antagonist of acetylcholine.

The study involved three groups, one control and two experimental. The control group received a placebo of saline solution and the experimental groups were given varying concentrations of scopolamine.

They conducted multiple memory tests and compared the performances of each group. The study found that participants with the highest concentration of scopolamine scored lower on memory tests, demonstrating how the antagonist can have a direct impact on memory.

Question 16

Acetylcholine

Answer 16

• Acetylcholine acts as both an inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter
• neuromuscular junctions (where nerves connect to muscles) and assists with blinking, contract muscles and other muscular movements in the heart and stomach
• plays a key role in memory and learning retention processes in the hippocampus

Question 17

What is a neurotransmitter?

Answer 17

• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are fired from neurons across a synapse to bind to target receptors, to induce an effect on the brain and behaviour
• Neurotransmitters allow physical and psychical functions in the brain to take place

An action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminal, which causes the electrical impulse to fuse vesicles containing neurotransmitters with the postsynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic gap between neurons and are received by receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron.

• the rapid nature of neurotransmission processes make it difficult to study directly.
• As a result, researchers often study neurotransmission indirectly, with the use of an antagonist, which is a drug that blocks the receptor site on a neuron and inhibits the effect of a given neurotransmitter

Question 18

Why is neuroimaging in psychology used?

Answer 18

are used to measure and analyse the structural and functional properties of the brain, to determine and understand abnormalities in brain and behaviour.

Question 19

What is structural neuroimaging and how/why is it used?

Answer 19

• CAT and MRI scan
• examine the brain structure in a three-dimensional high resolution, to determine any malformations such as abnormal growth and tissue, as well as compare increased neural density over time.
• this is done through the pattern of emission of energy through magnetic resonance.
• look for tissue damage and tumour growth
• cant distinguish between benign and malignant tumors

Question 20

What is functional neuroimaging and how/why is it used?

Answer 20

• The role of fMRI is to measure the brain activity in high temporal resolution. In fMRI, the patient or participant is usually given a stimulus to compare their brain processes at a time of activity compared to a time of rest. The role of the fMRI seeks to determine when brain regions are active during the performance of a task.
• FMRI’s measure activity in high temporal resolution, which is measured frames by second, through the oxygen in the blood.
• When a brain region is active, the flow of oxygenated blood in that specific location increases.
• So the flow and levels of blood oxygenation in the blood correlates with the energy in brain cells.

Question 21

Structural neuroimaging (MRI/CAT) cons

Answer 21

• Patients must sit still for long periods of time and it can feel claustrophobic.
• Poor/no temporal resolution
• cost
• people with mental implants inside them cannot receive MRI treatment as the metal can cause severe implications in the electromagnetic forces of the MRI.

Question 22

Functional neuroimaging (EEG/PET/FMRI) cons

Answer 22

• Poor spatial resolution
• Not moment by moment, fastest is only 1 frames per second
• cannot use with medical implants
• lengthy procedure
• cost

Question 23

Sharot et al (2007) connection to neuroimaging

Answer 23

• Sharot et al (2007) investigated the biological origin of flashbulb memories from the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
• A sample of 24 participants, who were in New York on 9/11, was placed in an fMRI machine to measure brain activity.
• Participants were given a series of words and asked to correlate the word to either their summer holidays or the events of 9/11, prompted by the words ‘summer’ or ‘September’. The participants then rated the vividness and detail of their memories and write a personal description. Here, the control and experimental group was used in an independent measures design, to compare brain states at a period of rest (summer holidays) and a period of distress (events of 9/11).
• Results showed that approximately half of the participants recorded flashbulb memories of 9/11 and that those who were closer to the event could give detailed descriptions and were more likely to have flashbulb memories of 9/11.
• In the fMRI scans, results showed that the amygdala, an area of the brain responsible for processing fear, was activated more in participants who were closer to the event when they recalled 9/11 than their previous summer.

Question 24

Evolution

Answer 24

• the process by which organisms change over generation to generation as a result of changes in heritable characteristics.

Question 25

Differential fitness

Answer 25

• the considerable/significant variation within the traits found in individuals in a population. Individuals have varying traits that may either improve or worsen their adaptability to their environment.

Question 26

Survival of the fittest & natural selection

Answer 26

• organisms that are well adapted to their environment have been shown to have higher survival rates and higher rates of producing offspring, since dominant traits are carried through generations and recessive traits are less likely to be passed on, or eventually disappear from the respective gene pool.
• The passing down of more dominant traits over recessive ones strengthens the overall gene pool and produces more well adapted offspring, a process/evolutionary phenomenon called natural selection.

Question 27

why are evolutionary explanations used in psychology?

Answer 27

. In psychology, the theory of evolution is used to explain how psychological traits and behaviours stem from evolutionary adaptations, and that our genetics code for behaviour as well as physical traits. Evolutionary explanations in psychology help researchers understand the origins and reasons behind a wide range of phenomena relating to the brain and behaviour.

Question 28

Curtis et al 2004 hypotheses

Answer 28

disgust would be heightened in close contact with a stranger compared to a close relative.
the evolutionary explanation for disgust is universal due to the biological link for the facial expression for disgust
the reaction for disgust would decrease with age as there is less responsibility to care for offspring and decreased pressure/need/ability to reproduce
that females would be more sensitive to disgust stimuli, as they have to protect offspring and their ability to reproduce more than males

Question 29

Why are animal studies used?

Answer 29

• similar physiological structures and genetics
• conduct longitudinal studies easily
• can observe over lifetimes and offspring
• bred faster with shorter lifespans
• can be under controlled conditions for longer
• in the past have been used for drug treatment, neglect, isolation and surgery
• less ethical implications

Question 30

What studies for the value of animal studies?

Answer 30

1. Rosenzweig et al (1971)

2. Rogers & Kesner (2003)

Question 31

Rogers & Kesner (2003)

Answer 31

Aim: To investigate the role of acetylcholine on memory encoding and retrieval

Method: 3 groups of rats trained to complete a simple maze

Group 1: Injected with scolapomine (antagonist condition)

Group 2: high acetylcholine condition

Group 3: Saline (control/placebo condition)

the first set of trials: encoding
the second set of trials: retrieval

Group 1 scopolamine showed a deficit in memory encoding and group 2 acetylcholine showed less mistakes but a deficit in memory retrieval.

Results showed that acetylcholine shows a role in memory encoding but that too much may interfere with memory encoding and retrieval

Question 32

Curtis et al (2004) (all the hypothesises were right!!)

Answer 32

• An online cross-cultural survey of over 40,000 participants was conducted
• Asked to rank a series of 20 photographs on a scale of disgust from 1-5. 14 of these photographs were from a set of 7 pairs of disease-salient pictures and less-salient pictures.
• Females ranked the images as more disgusting than males and levels of disgust decreased with age. When asked with whom they would share a toothbrush, the majority preferred to share with a close partner or a family over a stranger or acquaintance.

↓ skewed age and cultural survey
↓ the only access to a computer/internet

Question 33

Fessler et al (2005)

Answer 33

Aim: To study the effects of disgust sensitivity in pregnancy which compensates changes in vulnerability to disease.

Method: 496 pregnant women were used via a web-based survey comparing disgust sensitivity of women in their 1st semester to the 2nd and 3rd semester of pregnancy.

Results: Results supported the hypothesis and showed greater disgust and nausea sensibility in the 1st semester of pregnancy compared to the 2nd and 3rd semester.
This correlates with voluntary explanations as it demonstrates how heightened disgust sensitivity compensates for maternal and foetal vulnerability to disease.

↓ self-survey studies are not reliable

↑ measured disgust and nausea independently and separated variables well

Question 34

Why is genetics used in psychology?

Answer 34

Why is it used?
- Genetic or behavioural psychology refers to the branch of psychology that explores the role of genetics on behaviour and personality.

What is genetics?
- A gene is an inheritable segment of DNA that lies in a certain location in a chromosome that controls a specific characteristic and regulates protein synthesis. Genes are inherited from parent to offspring, known as genetic inheritance. Genes have been shown to indirectly affect behaviour, as genes can cause effects on certain neurochemicals in the brain.

What is genetic inheritance?
Genetic inheritance refers to the process in which genetic information is passed down from parent to offspring.

Question 35

What studies for genetics?

Answer 35

Caspi et al (2002) and Bouchard et al (1990)

Question 36

McGuffin et al (1996)

Answer 36

Hypothesis: To determine the role of genetics and the environment plays on being dispositioned to depression in twins, and the likelihood of the second twin also sharing depression.

Sample: A sample of 177 proband twins suffering from major depression was taken from the Maudsley Hospital register from 1948-1986.

Procedure: The study was double-blind and diagnostic testing and interviews were conducted with the participants. The participants were either monozygotic (MZ) or dizygotic (DZ) twins. The participants were questioned about childhood as a twin; such as how long they had lived with their twin if they had shared a bedroom if they were still in regular contact with their twin, and to what extent had friends and family treated them alike.

Results: The results showed that there was a 46% concordance rate of major depressive disorder in monozygotic twins (MZ) and a 20% concordance rate for dizygotic twins (DZ). In MZ twins of 65 years or above, the concordance rate increased to 70%.

Conclusion: While many of the twin participants reported being treated similarly and sharing a similar environment, the results concluded that the shared environment had an insufficient impact on the concordance of depression. The results demonstrate that genetics strongly affects being predisposed to major depressive disorder.

Question 37

Caspi et al (2002)

ethics & genetics

Answer 37

Hypothesis: To investigate the genetic susceptibility of developing anti-social behaviour in maltreated children through examining levels of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene.
Procedure: A sample of males was taken from a large sample of 1037 children from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, with 36% of the total sample having experienced maltreatment or probable maltreatment. Females were omitted from the study as it is harder to draw conclusions about the MAOA gene based on their genetics. Researchers collected information from family members, and measured anti-social behaviour based on psychological assessments, susceptibility to violence, police records of violent crimes and if the participants had symptoms of adolescent conduct disorder.
Results:
There was no correlation of high and low MAOA activity and anti-social behaviour
Participants with high MAOA activity seemed to be affected less by their childhood maltreatment than those with low MAOA activity
85% of participants who had been maltreated with low MAOA activity developed some form of anti-social behaviour
Conclusion: Results showed that the link between anti-social behaviour and maltreatment is conditional. Participants with higher MAOA activity were less likely to develop antisocial problems, but it is not a direct cause of why maltreatment can breed violence. Overall, the study outlines the relationship between genetics and children’s sensitivity to maltreatment, as well as the risks of being susceptible to violence.

male only sample makes it harder to generalise to females
not clearly stated if consent was given
details were taken from family, friends and doctors no consent shown

Question 38

Kindship studies/twin studies

Answer 38

1. Bouchard and McGue (1981) investigated the IQ correlations between relatives to observe the role of genetics on intelligence. A meta-analysis of 111 studies was used, involving MZ (monozygotic) twins, DZ, (dizygotic) twins, siblings and adopted children. Using the Falconer model, the results showed that the highest median correlation (80%), was between reared together MZ twins, but since it was not 100%, the study showed how the environment plays a role in intelligence. The study showed that 54% of intelligence between MZ and DZ twins is inherited, which shows the correlation between environment and genetics.

Bouchard and McGue (1981)
Strengths:
The study used a meta-analysis sampling that allowed researchers to examine a large population that covered kinship, twin and adoption studies.
The large sample size and variety strengths validity, reliability and provides a strong correlation between genetics and intelligence.
Limitations:
However, there is the assumption that twins reared apart were never together, despite many reared apart twins spending at least their first few months or years together.
Furthermore, twins are rare and may not be easily generalised to a wider population.
Another weakness includes the theory that the prenatal environment for monozygotic twins tends to be more similar than dizygotic twins.